[[File:Dent de narval.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo d'une dent de narval attachée à un mur de pierres.|[[Narwhal]] [[Toothed whale|tooth]] presented as a unicorn horn.]]

[[File:Frederik vi in coronationrobes1830.jpg|thumb|The [[Throne Chair of Denmark|unicorn throne]] in [[Denmark]].<br />By [[Wilhelm Bendz]] (1830)]]

A '''unicorn horn''', also known as an '''alicorn''',<ref>{{cite book | first = Odell | last = Shepard | title = The Lore of the Unicorn | year = 1930 | location = London | publisher = Unwin and Allen | isbn = 9781437508536}}</ref> is a [[legend]]ary object whose reality may have been accepted in [[Western Europe]] throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. Many healing powers and [[antidote]]'s virtues were attributed to the horn of the [[unicorn]]. These properties, assumed real since the 13th century, make it one of the most expensive and most reputable remedies during the [[Renaissance]],<ref>{{harvsp|Faidutti|1996|p=13}}</ref> and justify its use in royal courts. Beliefs related to the "unicorn horn" influence [[alchemy]] through [[Spagyric|spagyric medicine]]; that the object was at the origin of a series of tests over its purification properties, among others recounted in the book of [[Ambroise Paré]], ''Discourse on unicorn'', announcing the beginnings of the [[experimental method]].

Seen as one of the most valuable assets that a king could possess, unicorn horns were exchanged and could be purchased at [[Apothecary|apothecaries]] as universal [[antidote]]s until the 18th century. Other horns were displayed in [[cabinets of curiosities]]. The horn was used to create [[sceptre]]s and other sovereign objects, such as the [[Throne Chair of Denmark|"throne of unicorn"]] of [[Danish kings]], the sceptre and the [[Imperial Crown of Austria|imperial crown]] of the [[Austrian Empire]], as well as the [[scabbard]] and the [[hilt]] of the sword of [[Charles the Bold]]. The legendary unicorn was never captured, but its symbolism associated with its appeal to the virgins' lap made it the symbol of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of God's [[Logos (Christianity)|Word]], [[innocence]] and [[divine power]]

Beliefs in the virtues of the unicorn horn and its origins persisted from the [[Middle Ages]] to the 18th century, when the discovery of the [[narwhal]] is known. This [[marine mammal]] is the true bearer of the "unicorn horn", actually a particular tooth in the mouth of males and some females. Since then, the unicorn horn is mentioned in [[fantasy]] works, [[role-playing games]] and [[video games]], which resumed its legendary [[symbol]]ism.

== Nature and properties ==

Coming from an ancient figure, the unicorn was described by [[Ctesias]] as carrying a horn which Indian princes would use to make [[hanap]]s against [[poison]]. These writings were taken up by [[Aristotle]] and [[Pliny the Elder]];<ref name="Davenne130">{{harvsp|Davenne|2004|p=130}}</ref> [[Claudius Aelianus]] also said that drinking in this horn protects against diseases and poisons.<ref name="Attri">{{harvsp|de Tervarent|1997|pp=281–287}}</ref> These writings influenced the authors from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance: the unicorn becomes the most important and most frequently mentioned imaginary animal in the West, its existence was considered real. Other parts of its body were given medicinal properties and, in the 12th century, abbess [[Hildegard of Bingen]] recommended an ointment against [[leprosy]] made from foie de licorne and egg yolk.<ref>{{harvsp|de Bingen|1989|pp=196–197}}</ref> Wearing a unicorn [[leather belt]] was supposed to protect a person from the [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[fever]], while [[leather shoes]] of this animal lure diseases away from feet.<ref>{{harvsp|Lecouteux|1993|p=45}}</ref>

The actual medicinal use was linked to its horn and purification power assumed true since the [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]], which was explicitly mentioned for the first time in the 13th century. [[Legend]]s about this properties circulating since the [[Middle Ages]] were are the origin of a flourishing trade of these objects, which became more common up to the late 18th century, when their true origin was unknown. The unicorn never existed as represented, it is most often narwhal teeth known as "unicorn horns" during these times.<ref name="Nicus0">{{cite web |url=http://nicus.club.fr/Anthropo/Licorne0.htm |title=Note de recherche d’Ethnozoologie : Licorne de Mer ou Licorne de Terre : le Narval |last=Didrit |first=Mireille |last2=Pujol |first2=Raymond |date=September 1996 |work= |publisher=Université Paris V - Sorbonne |location=Paris |page= |pages= |at= |language=french |accessdate=21 September 2012 |quote= |ref= }}</ref>

=== Water purification ===

[[File:Hieronymus Bosch 020.jpg|thumb|Left panel of ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' by [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1503-1504), showing unicorns purifying water.]]

The first reference to the cleansing power of the unicorn appears in an interpretation of the ''[[Physiologus]]'' (dated 14th century), when reference is made to a large [[lake]] where animals congregate to drink:

{{Quote|But before they are gathered, the [[snake]] comes and throws his [[poison]] in the water. So many animals notice the poison and dare not to drink, and they expect the unicorn. It comes and it goes immediately to the lake, with its horn making the [[sign of the cross]], it makes the poison harmless. All other animals drink then.<ref>''Der Physiologus'' cited in {{harvsp|Freeman|1983|p=27}}</ref>}}

The theme soon became popular, the stage of purification of water by a unicorn is taken in 1389 by the father [[Johann van Hesse]], who claims to have seen a unicorn emerge from the sea to clean impure water so that animals could drink<ref name="Faidutti39">{{harvsp|Faidutti|1996|p=39}}</ref> [[Symbol]]ically, the snake that poisons the water is the [[devil]] and the unicorn represent [[Christ]] the Redeemer.<ref>{{harvsp|Faidutti|1996|p=59}}</ref> The origin of this legend seems [[India]]n, through the [[Ancient Greece literature|Greek texts]] mention the fact that the Indian nobles might drink out of unicorn horns to protect themselves from diseases and poisons.<ref name="Faidutti39"/>

The unicorn is most often represented by a river, a lake or a fountain, while animals wait for her to finish her work to drink. This scene is very common in the art of the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name="Faidutti61">{{harvsp|Faidutti|1996|p=61}}</ref> Studies and translations of these drawings and stories popularized the belief that the power of the animal comes from its horn, which would eliminate the poisons as it hits a liquid.<ref name="Faidutti39"/> Water purification forge the legend on the properties of the "unicorn horn" and later justifies its use as a universal [[antidote]].

=== Medicinal properties ===

{{See also|Bezoar}}

[[File:Weltliche Schatzkammer Wienb.jpg|thumb|left|Ainkhürn, «unicorn horn», offered to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] in 1540, exposed at Wiener Schatzkammer.]]

The properties of the unicorn horn can be paralleled to those of the [[Bezoar|bezoar stone]], another object of animal origin known in the [[Renaissance medicine]] and exposed as a rarity in the [[cabinets of curiosities]].<ref>Martin, Jean Hubert; Jean Guillaume and Frédéric Didier (2000). ''Le château d'Oiron et son cabinet de curiosités''. Éditions du patrimoine, p. 131</ref>

The unicorn horn was very quickly assigned many medicinal properties and, over time, in addition to the purification of polluted water in nature,<ref name="Roche131"/> its use was recommended against [[rubella]], [[measles]], [[fever]]s and [[pain]]s.<ref name="Valentini">{{harvsp|Valentini|1704|p=vol. 3, ch. 30}}</ref> The monks of the Parisians monasteries used to soak it in the drinking water given to [[Leprosy|lepers]].<ref name="Roche131"/> It acted as an [[antidote]] and, in a powder form, was known to facilitate wound healing, help neutralize [[poison]]s (such as [[scorpion]] or [[Viperinae|viper]] [[venom]])<ref name="Merv">{{harvsp|Brasey|2007|pp=259–263}}</ref> or against the [[Plague (disease)|plague]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Les œuvres d'Ambroise Paré |last=Paré |first=Ambroise |authorlink=Ambroise Paré |year=1628 |publisher=N. Buon |location= |isbn= |page=812 |pages= |accessdate=September 28, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wr8-AAAAcAAJ&dq=corne%20de%20licorne%20peste&hl=fr&pg=PA812#v=onepage&q=corne%20de%20licorne%20peste&f=false |language=French}}</ref> It would also have an [[aphrodisiac]] power known since ancient times<ref>{{harvsp|Ferlampin-Acher|2002|p=297}}</ref> and would test the [[virginity]] of young girls.<ref name="Graitson68">{{cite book |title=Actes du colloque Frankenstein littérature/cinéma |last=Graitson |first=Jean-Marie |authorlink= |year=1997 |publisher= |location= Chaudfontaine |isbn=9782871300540 |page=68 |pages= |accessdate=September 28, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2dV9gk-afzoC&pg=PA68}}</ref> The horn was consumed in several ways, in substance or infusion<ref>{{harvsp|Pomet|1696|p=26}}</ref>

Its prophylactic function and magical power, although known for centuries, while its trade increases, several «fake» horns and false powders appeared.<ref>{{harvsp|Rochelandet|2003|p=130}}</ref> The astronomical value achieved by these objects left to assume that their imaginary virtues could cause real healing,<ref name="Roche131">{{harvsp|Rochelandet|2003|p=131}}</ref> probably due to the [[placebo]] effect.

This use of the unicorn horn in [[medicine]] is due to the fact that therapists then have very few instruments and objects, and the ancient heritage meant that they were only instruments of God. The [[Inquisition]] played a role in this belief: to doubt the powers of the horn meant doubting the existence of the unicorn itself, animal of God mentioned in a translation of the [[Bible]]. [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] risked to be [[burned at the stake]].<ref name="Lemoine">{{harvsp|Lemoine|1996|p=147}}</ref>

Many works are devoted to the explanation and defense of the medicinal properties of the «unicorn horn», including ''The Treaty of the Unicorn, its wonderful properties and its use'' (1573) by [[Andrea Bacci]] and ''Natural History, Hunting, Virtues, and Use of Lycorn'' (1624) by [[apothecary]] Laurent Catelan. Bacci probably wrote his book at the request of his patients, who were major investors in the unicorn horn trade.<ref>{{harvsp|Giblin|1991|p=77}}</ref>

=== Display and use as antipoison ===

Twisted shape "unicorn horns" were exchanged and in circulation for a long time: according to a legend, the "horn" on display at the [[Musée national du Moyen Âge]] was a gift from the [[Caliph of Baghdad]], [[Harun al-Rashid]], to [[Charlemagne]] in 807.<ref name="Attri"/> It measures almost three meters.<ref name="Nicus1">{{Cite thesis |type=Master |chapter= |title=Licorne de Mer ou Licorne de Terre : le Narval |url=http://nicus.club.fr/Anthropo/Licorne1.htm |author=Mireille Didrit and Raymond Pujol |last= |first= |year=1996 |publisher=Université Paris-V - Sorbonne |accessdate= |docket= |oclc= }}</ref> A seven-foot long horn is exposed in [[Bruges]], [[Flanders]].<ref name="Attri"/> Since the [[Middle Ages]], the "unicorn horn" is supposed to be the most valuable asset that a king could possess.<ref name="Merv"/> Its medicinal use is attested since the 13th century, when pharmacists incorporated narwhal teeth (presented as unicorn horns) in their treatments and they had large pieces so it could not be confused with that of another animal, such as [[ox]].<ref>{{harvsp|Buck|Centre d'études supérieures de la Renaissance|1973|p=215}}</ref> These objects would have been exchanged up to eleven times their weight in [[gold]].<ref name="Roche131"/> Some horns, introduced reportedly during the [[Fourth Crusade]] of [[Constantinople]], were thrown into the pit of the [[Doge's Palace, Venice|Doge's Palace]] in [[Venice]], so that water could never be poisoned. Horns considered [[sacred relic]]s can be found at the [[Council of Trent]] in 1563, as well as the [[Saint-Denis Cathedral]] in [[Paris]], [[St Mark's Basilica]] in Venice and [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[London]]. They were usually mounted on silver socles and presented as trophies that could only be shown for important ceremonies.<ref name="Merv"/>

[[Ambroise Paré]] explains that the horns were used in the court of the [[King of France]] to detect the presence of poison in food and drink: if the horn became hot and started to smoke, then the dish was poisoned.<ref name="Malrieu">{{harvsp|Malrieu|1987|p=131}}</ref> [[Pope Clement VII]] would have offered a unicorn horn of two cubits long to King [[Francis I of France]] at the wedding of his niece [[Catherine de' Medici]] in [[Marseille]] in October 1533,<ref>{{cite book |title=Léonard de Vinci en France: collections et collectionneurs : XVe-XVIIe siècles |last=Fagnart|first=Laure |authorlink= |year=2009 |publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider |location=|isbn=9788882655549 |page=161 |pages=|language=French}}</ref> and the king did not ever move without a bag filled with unicorn powder.<ref name="Davenne130"/> Also, the [[Grand Inquisitor]] [[Tomás de Torquemada|Torquemada]] always bore his unicorn horn to protect himself from poison and murderers.<ref name="Lutavd1906">{{harvsp|Lutavd|1906|pp=197–199}}</ref>

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==

=== Founding works on medicine and alchemy ===

* {{cite book |title=Le Livre des subtilités des créatures divines |last=de Bingen |first=Hildegarde |authorlink=Hildegard of Bingen |year=1989 |publisher=Millon |location=Paris |isbn=2905614315 |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |volume=II |language=French}}

* {{cite book |title=Discorso contro la falsa opinione dell'Alicorno |last=Marini |first=Andrea |authorlink=Andrea Marini |year=1566 |publisher= |location=Venice |isbn= |page= |pages= |language=Italian}}

* {{cite book |title=L'alicorno discorso dell'eccellente medico et filosofo M. Andrea Bacci: nel quale si tratta della natura dell' alicorno et delle sue virtu eccellentissime |last=Bacci |first=Andrea |authorlink=Andrea Bacci |year=1573 |publisher=G. Marescotti |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= 80 |language=Italian}}

* {{cite book |title=Discours d'Ambroise Paré : À savoir, de la mumie, de la licorne, des venins et de la peste |last=Paré |first=Ambroise |authorlink=Ambroise Paré |year=1582 |publisher= |location=Paris |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/document?O=N054386 |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Voyages et apologie suivis du Discours de la licorne |last=Paré |first=Ambroise |authorlink= |year=1928 |publisher= |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Dittionario novo hebraïco |last=Pomis |first= David|authorlink=David Pomis |year=1587 |publisher= |location=Venice |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=Italian }}

* {{cite book |title=Histoire des plantes avec leurs pourtraictz, à laquelle sont adjoutées celles des simples, aromatiques, animaux à quatre pieds, oiseaux, serpens et autres bêtes venimeuses |last=Linocier |first=Geoffroy |authorlink=Geoffroy Linocier |year=1584 |publisher= |location=Paris |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=0Sw6AAAAcAAJ |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Triumphal Chariot of Antimony |last=Valentine |first=Basil |authorlink=Basil Valentine |year=1678 |publisher= |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/alc/antimony.htm |language= }}

* {{cite book |title=De Meteoris Microcosmi |last=Rodrigo a Castro |first=Esteban |authorlink= |year=1621 |publisher= |location=Florence |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=Italian }}

* {{cite book |title=Histoire de la nature, chasse, vertus, proprietez et usage de la lycorne |last=Catelan |first=Laurent |authorlink= |year=1624 |publisher= |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Histoire générale des drogues, traitant des plantes, des minéraux et des animaux |last=Pomet |first=Pierre |authorlink=Pierre Pomet |year=1696 |publisher= |location=Paris |volume=II |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=_X_1HAAACAAJ |language=French }}

===Founding travel and exploration stories===

* {{cite book |title=Les Observations de plusieurs singularités et choses mémorables trouvées en Grèce, Asie, Judée, Égypte, Arabie et autres pays estranges, rédigées en trois livres |last=Belon |first=Pierre |authorlink=Pierre Belon |year=1553 |publisher=G. Corrozet |location=Paris |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French}}

* {{cite book |title=Origines Antwerpianæ |last=Goropius |first=Johannes |authorlink=Johannes Goropius |year=1569 |publisher= |location=Antwerp |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=Dutch}}

* {{cite book |title=Atlas Minor: traduction française par M. de la Popelinière |last=Mercator |first=Gérard |authorlink= |year=1607 |publisher= |location=Amsterdam |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French}}

* {{cite book |title=De Unicornu Observationes Novæ|others=Padoue |last=Bartholin |first=Thomas |authorlink=Thomas Bartholin |year=1645 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=_HQodh9txNEC |language=Latin}}

* {{cite book |title=The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher in Search of a Passage to Cathaia and India by the North-West, 1576-8, A.D. 1576-8 |last=Collinson |first=Sir Richard |authorlink= |year=1867 |publisher=Hakluyt Society |location=London |isbn= |page= |pages=374 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WQcVAAAAQAAJ |language=}}

=== Founding works on zoology ===

* {{cite book |title=Historiæ Animalium de Quadrupedibus Viviparis |last=Gesner |first=Conrad |authorlink=Conrad Gesner |year=1603 |publisher= |location=Frankfurt |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://www.humi.mita.keio.ac.jp/treasures/nature/Gesner-web/mammal/html/normal_b/l082b.html |language=Latin}}

* {{cite book |title=De Quadrupedibus Solipedibus |last=Aldrovandi |first=Ulysse |authorlink=Ulysse Aldrovandi |year=1616 |publisher= |location=Bologna |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=X533358034 |language=Italian}}

* {{cite book |title=Museum Museorum |last=Valentini |first=Michael Bernhard |authorlink=Michael Bernhard Valentini |year=1704 |volume=III |chapter=30 |publisher= |location=Frankfurt |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=Latin}}

* {{cite book |title=[[Systema Naturae]] |last=von Linné |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl von Linné |year=1793 |publisher= |location=Brussels |isbn= |page= |pages= |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=Latin}}

=== Theses and studies ===

* {{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |first=Bruno |last=Faidutti|authorlink=Bruno Faidutti |title=Images et connaissance de la licorne: (Fin du Moyen Âge - xixe siècle) |publisher=[[Paris 12 Val de Marne University|Université Paris-XII]] |language=French |year=1996 |volume=1 |accessdate=10 June 2009 |url=http://www.faidutti.com/unicorn/unicorn.htm }}

* {{cite book |title=La chasse à la licorne: prestigieuse tenture française des Cloisters |last=Freeman |first=Margaret |authorlink= |year=1983 |publisher=Edita |location=Lausanne |isbn=9782880010508 |page= |pages=247 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Les monstres dans la pensée médiévale européenne: essai de présentation |last=Lecouteux |first=Claude |authorlink=Claude Lecouteux |year=1993 |publisher=Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne |location=Paris |isbn=9782840500216 |page= |pages=183 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url= |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Attributs et symboles dans l'art profane: dictionnaire d'un langage perdu (1450-1600) |last=de Tervarent |first=Guy |authorlink= |year=1997 |publisher=Librairie Droz |location= |isbn=9782600005074 |page= |pages=535 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=s_BnmrAKRRUC&pg=PA286&dq=Licorne&lr= |language=French }}

* {{cite book |title=Modernité du cabinet de curiosités |last=Davenne |first=Christine |authorlink= |year=2004 |publisher=L'Harmattan |location= |isbn=9782747558600 |page= |pages=299 |accessdate=September 20, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lIwd4zEooRoC&pg=PA130&dq=corne+de+licorne&lr=&hl=fr&cd=19#v=onepage&q=corne%20de%20licorne&f=false |language=French}}

===External links===

* {{wiktionary-inline|alicorn}}

[[Category:Unicorns]]

[[Category:Alchemical substances]]

[[Category:History of medieval medicine]]