Article: the decentralized model of production
Linux (pronounced i/ˈlɪnəks/ LIN-əks[9][10] or, less frequently, /ˈlaɪnəks/ LYN-əks[10][11]) is a Unix-like and mostly POSIX-compliant[12] computer operating system (OS) assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[13] an operating system kernel first released on October 5, 1991 by Linus Torvalds.[14][15] The Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is the most prominent example of open-source development.
The open-source model, or collaborative development from multiple independent sources, generates an increasingly more diverse scope of design perspective than any one company is capable of developing and sustaining long term. A report by the Standish Group (from 2008) states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers.
'LINUX
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The underlyingsource code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.
History
History of free and open source software
End of 1990s: Foundation of the Open Source Initiative
In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other and evolve the field of computing. Eventually open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980.
In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar, a reflective analysis of the hacker community and free software principles. The paper received significant attention in early 1998, and was one factor in motivating Netscape Communications Corporation to release their popular Netscape Communicator Internet suite as free software. This source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer.
Netscape's act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundation's free software ideas and perceived benefits to the commercial software industry. They concluded that FSF's social activism was not appealing to companies like Netscape, and looked for a way to rebrand the free software movement to emphasize the business potential of sharing and collaborating on software source code. The new term they chose was "open source", which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term and evangelize open-source principles. The Free software movement was lounched in 1983. In 1998 a Group of individual adovated that the team free software should be replace by open source software should be replace by open source software(OSS) as an expression which is less and ambijuoss & more comfortable for the corporate word.
While the Open Source Initiative sought to encourage the use of the new term and evangelize the principles it adhered to, commercial software vendors found themselves increasingly threatened by the concept of freely distributed software and universal access to an application's source code. A Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that "open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I can't imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and the intellectual-property business." However, while FOSS has historically played a role outside of the mainstream of private software development, companies as large as Microsoft have begun to develop official open-source presences on the Internet. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in today's competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS.
The free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the term free software should be replaced by open-source software (OSS) as an expression which is less ambiguous and more comfortable for the corporate world. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, so that anybody may also develop the same software or understand its internal functioning. With open-source software, generally anyone is allowed to create modifications of it, port it to new operating systems and processor architectures, share it with others or, in some cases, market it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source – in particular, the heightened value proposition from open source (when compared to most proprietary formats) in the following categories:
Security Affordability Transparency Perpetuity Interoperability Flexibility
Localization—particularly in the context of local governments (who make software decisions). Casson and Ryan argue that "governments have an inherent responsibility and fiduciary duty to taxpayers" which includes the careful analysis of these factors when deciding to purchase proprietary software or implement an open-source option.
The Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition. The most prominent and popular example is the GNU General Public License (GPL), which "allows free distribution under the condition that further developments and applications are put under the same licence", thus also free.
The open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7, 1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator (as Mozilla). A group of individuals at the session included Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, Tom Paquin, Jamie Zawinski, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Sameer Parekh, Eric Allman, Greg Olson, Paul Vixie, John Ousterhout, Guido van Rossum, Philip Zimmermann, John Gilmore and Eric S. Raymond. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigator's source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the word "free" in English.
Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, while others do not distinguish between open-source and free software movements.
The Free Software Foundation (FSF), started in 1985, intended the word "free" to mean freedom to distribute (or "free as in free speech") and not freedom from cost (or "free as in free beer"). Since a great deal of free software already was (and still is) free of charge, such free software became associated with zero cost, which seemed anti-commercial.
The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens. With at least 20 years of evidence from case histories of closed software development versus open development already provided by the Internet developer community, the OSI presented the "open source" case to commercial businesses, like Netscape. The OSI hoped that the usage of the label "open source", a term suggested by Peterson of the Foresight Institute at the strategy session, would eliminate ambiguity, particularly for individuals who perceive "free software" as anti-commercial. They sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to register "open source" as a service mark for the OSI, but that attempt was impractical by trademark standards. Meanwhile, due to the presentation of Raymond's paper to the upper management at Netscape—Raymond only discovered when he read the Press Release, and was called by Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale's PA later in the day—Netscape released its Navigator source code as open source, with favorable results.
Definitions
The Open Source Initiative's (OSI) definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition. In addition, many of the worlds largest open source software projects and contributors, including Debian, Drupal Association, FreeBSD Foundation, Linux Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Wikimedia Foundation, Wordpress Foundation have committed to upholding the OSI's mission and Open Source Definition through the OSI Affiliate Agreement.
OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Perens. Perens did not base his writing on the "four freedoms" from the Free Software Foundation (FSF), which were only widely available later.
Under Perens' definition, open source describes a broad general type of software license that makes source code available to the general public with relaxed or non-existent restrictions on the use and modification of the code. It is an explicit "feature" of open source that it puts very few restrictions on the use or distribution by any organization or user, in order to enable the rapid evolution of the software.
Despite initially accepting it, Richard Stallman of the FSF now flatly opposes the term "Open Source" being applied to what they refer to as "free software". Although he agrees that the two terms describe "almost the same category of software", Stallman considers equating the terms incorrect and misleading. Critics also oppose the professed pragmatism of the Open Source Initiative, as they fear that the free software ideals of freedom and community are threatened by compromising on the FSF's idealistic standards for software freedom. The FSF considers free software to be a subset of open source software, and Richard Stallman explained that DRM software, for example, can be developed as open source, despite that it does not give its users freedom (it restricts them), and thus doesn't qualify as free software.
Open-source software licensing
Free and open-source software#Licensing
When an author contributes code to an open-source project (e.g., Apache.org) they do so under an explicit license (e.g., the Apache Contributor License Agreement) or an implicit license (e.g. the open-source license under which the project is already licensing code). Some open-source projects do not take contributed code under a license, but actually require joint assignment of the author's copyright in order to accept code contributions into the project.
Examples of free software license / open-source licenses include Apache License, BSD license, GNU General Public License, GNU Lesser General Public License, MIT License, Eclipse Public License and Mozilla Public License.
The proliferation of open-source licenses is a negative aspect of the open-source movement because it is often difficult to understand the legal implications of the differences between licenses. With more than 180,000 open-source projects available and more than 1400 unique licenses, the complexity of deciding how to manage open-source usage within "closed-source" commercial enterprises has dramatically increased. Some are home-grown, while others are modeled after mainstream FOSS licenses such as Berkeley Software Distribution ("BSD"), Apache, MIT-style (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), or GNU General Public License ("GPL"). In view of this, open-source practitioners are starting to use classification schemes in which FOSS licenses are grouped (typically based on the existence and obligations imposed by the copyleft provision; the strength of the copyleft provision).
An important legal milestone for the open source / free software movement was passed in 2008, when the US federal appeals court ruled that free software licenses definitely do set legally binding conditions on the use of copyrighted work, and they are therefore enforceable under existing copyright law. As a result, if end-users violate the licensing conditions, their license disappears, meaning they are infringing copyright.
Despite this licensing risk, most commercial software vendors are using open source software in commercial products while fulfilling the license terms, e.g. leveraging the Apache license.
Certifications
Certification can help to build user confidence. Certification could be applied to the simplest component, to a whole software system. The United Nations University International Institute for Software Technology, initiated a project known as "The Global Desktop Project". This project aims to build a desktop interface that every end-user is able to understand and interact with, thus crossing the language and cultural barriers. The project would improve developing nations' access to information systems. UNU/IIST hopes to achieve this without any compromise in the quality of the software by introducing certifications.
Open-source software development Development model
In his 1997 essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar, open-source evangelist Eric S. Raymond suggests a model for developing OSS known as the bazaar model. Raymond likens the development of software by traditional methodologies to building a cathedral, "carefully crafted by individual wizards or small bands of mages working in splendid isolation". He suggests that all software should be developed using the bazaar style, which he described as "a great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches."
In the traditional model of development, which he called the cathedral model, development takes place in a centralized way. Roles are clearly defined. Roles include people dedicated to designing (the architects), people responsible for managing the project, and people responsible for implementation. Traditional software engineering follows the cathedral model.
The bazaar model, however, is different. In this model, roles are not clearly defined. Gregorio Robles suggests that software developed using the bazaar model should exhibit the following patterns:
Users should be treated as co-developers The users are treated like co-developers and so they should have access to the source code of the software. Furthermore, users are encouraged to submit additions to the software, code fixes for the software, bug reports, documentation etc. Having more co-developers increases the rate at which the software evolves. Linus's law states, "Given enough eyeballs all bugs are shallow." This means that if many users view the source code, they will eventually find all bugs and suggest how to fix them. Note that some users have advanced programming skills, and furthermore, each user's machine provides an additional testing environment. This new testing environment offers that ability to find and fix a new bug.
Early releases The first version of the software should be released as early as possible so as to increase one's chances of finding co-developers early.
Frequent integration Code changes should be integrated (merged into a shared code base) as often as possible so as to avoid the overhead of fixing a large number of bugs at the end of the project life cycle. Some open source projects have nightly builds where integration is done automatically on a daily basis.
Several versions There should be at least two versions of the software. There should be a buggier version with more features and a more stable version with fewer features. The buggy version (also called the development version) is for users who want the immediate use of the latest features, and are willing to accept the risk of using code that is not yet thoroughly tested. The users can then act as co-developers, reporting bugs and providing bug fixes.
High modularization The general structure of the software should be modular allowing for parallel development on independent components.
Dynamic decision making structure There is a need for a decision making structure, whether formal or informal, that makes strategic decisions depending on changing user requirements and other factors. Cf. Extreme programming.
Data suggests, however, that OSS is not quite as democratic as the bazaar model suggests. An analysis of five billion bytes of free/open source code by 31,999 developers shows that 74% of the code was written by the most active 10% of authors. The average number of authors involved in a project was 5.1, with the median at 2.
Advantages and disadvantages
Open source software is usually easier to obtain than proprietary software, often resulting in increased usage. Additionally, the availability of an open source implementation of a standard can increase adoption of that standard. It has also helped to build developer loyalty as developers feel empowered and have a sense of ownership of the end product.
Moreover, lower costs of marketing and logistical services are needed for OSS. OSS also helps companies keep abreast of technology developments. It is a good tool to promote a company's image, including its commercial products. The OSS development approach has helped produce reliable, high quality software quickly and inexpensively.
Open source development offers the potential for a more flexible technology and quicker innovation. It is said to be more reliable since it typically has thousands of independent programmers testing and fixing bugs of the software. It is flexible because modular systems allow programmers to build custom interfaces, or add new abilities to it and it is innovative since open source programs are the product of collaboration among a large number of different programmers. The mix of divergent perspectives, corporate objectives, and personal goals speeds up innovation.
Moreover, free software can be developed in accord with purely technical requirements. It does not require thinking about commercial pressure that often degrades the quality of the software. Commercial pressures make traditional software developers pay more attention to customers' requirements than to security requirements, since such features are somewhat invisible to the customer.
It is sometimes said that the open source development process may not be well defined and the stages in the development process, such as system testing and documentation may be ignored. However this is only true for small (mostly single programmer) projects. Larger, successful projects do define and enforce at least some rules as they need them to make the teamwork possible. In the most complex projects these rules may be as strict as reviewing even minor change by two independent developers.
Not all OSS initiatives have been successful, for example SourceXchange and Eazel. Software experts and researchers who are not convinced by open source's ability to produce quality systems identify the unclear process, the late defect discovery and the lack of any empirical evidence as the most important problems (collected data concerning productivity and quality). It is also difficult to design a commercially sound business model around the open source paradigm. Consequently, only technical requirements may be satisfied and not the ones of the market. In terms of security, open source may allow hackers to know about the weaknesses or loopholes of the software more easily than closed-source software.It depends on control mechanisms in order to create effective performance of autonomous agents who participate in virtual organizations.
Development tools
In OSS development, tools are used to support the development of the product and the development process itself.
Revision control systems such as Concurrent Versions System (CVS) and later Subversion (SVN) and Git are examples of tools, often themselves open source, help manage the source code files and the changes to those files for a software project. The projects are frequently hosted and published on sites like Launchpad, Bitbucket, and GitHub.
Open source projects are often loosely organized with "little formalised process modelling or support", but utilities such as issue trackers are often used to organize open source software development. Commonly used bugtrackers include Bugzilla and Redmine.
Tools such as mailing lists and IRC provide means of coordination among developers. Centralized code hosting sites also have social features that allow developers to communicate.
Organizations
Some of the "more prominent organizations" involved in OSS development include the Apache Software Foundation, creators of the Apache web server; the Linux Foundation, a nonprofit which employed Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux operating system kernel; the Eclipse Foundation, home of the Eclipse software development platform; the Debian Project, creators of the influential Debian GNU/Linux distribution; the Mozilla Foundation, home of the Firefox web browser; and OW2, European-born community developing open source middleware. New organizations tend to have a more sophisticated governance model and their membership is often formed by legal entity members.
Open Source Software Institute is a membership-based, non-profit (501 (c)(6)) organization established in 2001 that promotes the development and implementation of open source software solutions within US Federal, state and local government agencies. OSSI's efforts have focused on promoting adoption of open source software programs and policies within Federal Government and Defense and Homeland Security communities.
Open Source for America is a group created to raise awareness in the United States Federal Government about the benefits of open source software. Their stated goals are to encourage the government's use of open source software, participation in open source software projects, and incorporation of open source community dynamics to increase government transparency.
Mil-OSS is a group dedicated to the advancement of OSS use and creation in the military.
Funding
Business models for open-source software
Comparisons with other software licensing/development models
Closed source / proprietary software
Comparison of open source and closed source
The debate over open source vs. closed source (alternatively called proprietary software) is sometimes heated.
The top four reasons (as provided by Open Source Business Conference survey) individuals or organizations choose open source software are:
lower cost, security,
no vendor 'lock in', and
better quality.
Since innovative companies no longer rely heavily on software sales, proprietary software has become less of a necessity. As such, things like open source content management system—or CMS—deployments are becoming more commonplace. In 2009, the US White House switched its CMS system from a proprietary system to Drupal open source CMS. Further, companies like Novell (who traditionally sold software the old-fashioned way) continually debate the benefits of switching to open source availability, having already switched part of the product offering to open source code. In this way, open source software provides solutions to unique or specific problems. As such, it is reported that 98% of enterprise-level companies use open source software offerings in some capacity.
With this market shift, more critical systems are beginning to rely on open source offerings, allowing greater funding (such as US Department of Homeland Security grants) to help "hunt for security bugs." According to a pilot study of organisations adopting (or not adopting) OSS; several factors of statistical significance were observed in the manager's beliefs in relation to (a) attitudes toward outcomes, (b) the influences and behaviours of others and (c) their ability to act.
Proprietary source distributors have started to develop and contribute to the open source community due to the market share shift, doing so by the need to reinvent their models in order to remain competitive.
Many advocates argue that open source software is inherently safer because any person can view, edit, and change code. A study of the Linux source code has 0.17 bugs per 1000 lines of code while proprietary software generally scores 20–30 bugs per 1000 lines.
Free software
Alternative terms for free software
Comparison of free and open-source software licenses
According to the Free software movement's leader, Richard Stallman, the main difference is that by choosing one term over the other (i.e. either "open source" or "free software") one lets others know about what one's goals are: "Open source is a development methodology; free software is a social movement." Nevertheless, there is significant overlap between open source software and free software.
The FSF said that the term "open source" fosters an ambiguity of a different kind such that it confuses the mere availability of the source with the freedom to use, modify, and redistribute it. On the other hand, the "free software" term was criticized for the ambiguity of the word "free" as "available at no cost", which was seen as discouraging for business adoption, and for the historical ambiguous usage of the term.
Developers have used the alternative terms Free and Open Source Software (FOSS), or Free/Libre and Open Source Software (FLOSS), consequently, to describe open source software that is also free software. While the definition of open source software is very similar to the FSF's free software definition it was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Bruce Perens with input from Eric S. Raymond and others.
The term "open source" was originally intended to be trademarkable; however, the term was deemed too descriptive, so no trademark exists. The OSI would prefer that people treat open source as if it were a trademark, and use it only to describe software licensed under an OSI approved license.OSI Certified''' is a trademark licensed only to people who are distributing software licensed under a license listed on the Open Source Initiative's list.
Open-source vs. source-available
Although the OSI definition of "open source software" is widely accepted, a small number of people and organizations use the term to refer to software where the source is available for viewing, but which may not legally be modified or redistributed. Such software is more often referred to as source-available, or as shared source, a term coined by Microsoft in 2001. While in 2007 two shared source licenses were certified by the OSI, most of the shared source licenses are still source-available only.
In 2007 Michael Tiemann, president of OSI, had criticized companies such as SugarCRM for promoting their software as "open source" when in fact it did not have an OSI-approved license. In SugarCRM's case, it was because the software is so-called "badgeware" since it specified a "badge" that must be displayed in the user interface (SugarCRM has since switched to GPLv3). Another example was Scilab prior to version 5, which called itself "the open source platform for numerical computation" but had a license that forbade commercial redistribution of modified versions.
Current applications and adoption
Free and open-source software#Adoption
"We migrated key functions from Windows to Linux because we needed an operating system that was stable and reliable – one that would give us in-house control. So if we needed to patch, adjust, or adapt, we could." Official statement of the United Space Alliance, which manages the computer systems for the International Space Station (ISS), regarding why they chose to switch from Windows to Debian GNU/Linux on the ISS
Widely used open-source software
List of free and open-source software packages
Open source software projects are built and maintained by a network of volunteer programmers and are widely used in free as well as commercial products. Prime examples of open-source products are the Apache HTTP Server, the e-commerce platform osCommerce, internet browsers Mozilla Firefox and Chromium (the project where the vast majority of development of the freeware Google Chrome is done) and the full office suite LibreOffice. One of the most successful open-source products is the GNU/Linux operating system, an open-source Unix-like operating system, and its derivative Android, an operating system for mobile devices. In some industries, open source software is the norm.
Extension of the term for non-software usage
While the term "open source" applied originally only to the source code of software, it is now being applied to many other areas such as Open source ecology, a movement to decentralize technologies so that any human can use them. However, it is often misapplied to other areas which have different and competing principles, which overlap only partially.
The same principles that underlie open source software can be found in many other ventures, such as open-source hardware, Wikipedia, and open-access publishing. Collectively, these principles are known as open source, open content, and open collaboration: "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants, who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and non-contributors alike."
This "culture" or ideology takes the view that the principles apply more generally to facilitate concurrent input of different agendas, approaches and priorities, in contrast with more centralized models of development such as those typically used in commercial companies.
See also Free software Free software community
List of open source software packages
Open source advocacy Open Source Initiative
Open Source Software Institute
Open source software security
Open source video games
Business models for open source software
Shared source
Timeline of open source software
Open source hardware User-generated content Open-content References Further reading
Open source software: A survey from 10,000 feet Foundations and Trends in Technology, Information and Operations Management http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/jrnl/2010-TOMS-OSS-Survey/html/ASKG10.pdf
Coleman, E. Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking (Princeton UP, 2012)
Open Source: Technology and Policy
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution Chris DiBona and Sam Ockman and Mark Stone
Free Software, Free Society: Selected Essays of Richard M. Stallman GNU Press, Free Software Foundation https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/fsfs/rms-essays.pdf
Understanding FOSS Benkler, Yochai (2002), "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm." Yale Law Journal 112.3 (Dec 2002): p367(78) (in Adobe pdf format)
https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-045.html "The Economic Properties of Software", Jena Economic Research Papers, Volume 2 (2008), Number 2008-045
Lerner, J. & Tirole, J. (2002): 'Some simple economics on open source', Journal Of Industrial Economics 50(2), p 197–234
The Rise of Open Source Licensing: A Challenge to the Use of Intellectual Property in the Software Industry http://pub.turre.com/openbook_valimaki.pdf
http://nzoss.org.nz/system/files/moj_oss_strategy_1.0.pdf Open Source Discussion Paper – version 1.0
Rossi, M. A. (2006): Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions, in J. Bitzer P. Schröder, eds, 'The Economics of Open Source Software Development', p 15–55.
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution — an online book containing essays from prominent members of the open source communityWhence The Source: Untangling the Open Source/Free Software Debate'', essay on the differences between free software and open source, by Thomas Scoville
Berry, D M (2004). The Contestation of Code: A Preliminary Investigation into the Discourse of the Free Software and Open Software Movement, Critical Discourse Studies, Volume 1(1).
External links
The Open Source Initiative's definition of open source
Free / Open Source Research Community — Many online research papers about Open Source
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January 23, 2012 by galih567
ARMADA “Di Mabuk Cinta”
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dia membuat makanpun tak enak
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ku terpikat pada kehangatan
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yang selalu dia berikan
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nikmatnya kini ku dimabuk cinta dimabuk cinta
[intro] G Am D 2x
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ku terpikat pada kehangatan
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G Am dimabuk cinta Em D dimabuk cinta G Am dimabuk cinta Em D dimabuk cinta G dimabuk cinta Leave a comment January 13, 2012 by galih567
ALL about me……. “Galih Budi Saputro”
Hy…… kenalin gue Galih,,,,,,,, umur gue kira-kira 16
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tahun, gue merupakan anak terkecil di keluarga gue, maklum OrTu gue Cuma punya 2 orang anak,, kakak gue gak beda jauh sama gue, Cuma selisih 2 tahun, dan sekarang dia udah kerja,,
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Gini nich ceritanya,,,,,,,,,,,,
11 tahun yang lalu,, kira-kira umur gue 5 tahunan lach, gue tinggal sama OrTu gue di Jakarta, kehidupan gue sich emang bisa di bilang laen dari yang laennya. Dari kecil gue dah di ajarin bagaimana ngenjalanin hidup di kehidupan yang keras,, bisa dibilang kehidupan gue hampir tiap1 minggu pasti ada aja gara-gara,, entah dari bokapp gue ataupun dari yang lainnya,, dari kecil gue dah tau banget gmana susahnya hidup, makannya gue sekarang terkesan lebih memilih diam dan lebih suka perhatiin kondisi yang ada… nah dari umur gue 5 tahun sampai dengan 6 tahun di jakata ada aja masalah yang dateng… maka dari itu waktu umur gue 6 tahun gue dipindah ke desa yang sampai sekarang gue tempatin,, disini gue tinggal sama tante gue, nah mulai dari it gue ngerasain banget gimana rasanya hidup tanpa ke-2 orang tua disisi gue,,,, di umur yang segitu gue ngerasain banget gimana gak enaknya hidup jauh dari orang tua,, disaat loe seneng, sedih, sakit atau apa lach,, loe Cuma bisa berbagi sama tante dan saudara loe. “mending sich masih bisa berbagi” mungkin sebagian dari loe beranggapan begitu, tapi, tetep aja sob, rasa batin yang terjadi itu beda kalo di waktu itu ada orang yang sangat kita butuhin. Tapi gue gak nyerah gitu aja sama keadaan yang terjadi, di keluarga gue kalo gak ada salah satu aja ada orang yang sukses,, maka bisa dipastikan penderitaan dikeluarga gue gak akan berakhir……… jaadi, sejak gue tinggal sama tante gue gue diajarin bener hidup mandiri,, sampai-sampai dari kelas 1 SD sampai dengan kelas 6 SD gue bisa masuk kedalam 2 besar, dan gak jarang gue dapet peringkat satu. “bukannya sombong, tapi biar komplit aja alur ceritannya”..
Nah sekarang masuk nich di kehidupan gue di masa awal-awal remaja (SMP), disitu sini bisa dibilang kehidupan gue mulai berwarna warni,, gue juga lebih punya banyak temen, dan salah satunnya merupakan temen gue sampai sekarang nie . dan di masa ini juga sob… loe pasti juga tau kan sob kehidupan anak2 SMP kayak apa, bahkan di masa ini pula gue untuk pertama kalinya ngerasain rasannya suka sama cewek, “walaupun gue gak ngungkapin ke cewek itu sich,, maklum masih takut sob…” nah kehidupan gue dimasa ini mungkin gak jauh beda sama loe-loe semua, ya mungkin bedanya Cuma gue masih jauh sama orang tua gue aja,,,, “cepet aja ya sob langsung ke masa-masa gue SMA”.
Nah dimasa SMA ini mungkin banyak cerita-cerita yang menarik,,, dari gue berani ngungkapin perasaan gue ke cewek, sikap gue banyak yang berubah, yang yang laennya sob. Nah gue dulu masuk di sma itu di kelas X2 (sepuluh dua) “pembagian kelas di sekolahan gue emang gini sob”.. dikelas sepuluh nie, mungkin masa-masa untuk pengenalan dengan lingkungan baru kali ya, jadi masih rada malu-malu gitu,,, banyak ambisi yang gue punya di kelas supuluh nie, jadi gue emang bener-bener serius ngejalanin sekolah gue. Nah katika gue naek ke kelas sebelas , banyak hal-hal yang gak gue kira sebelumnya terjadi di masa-masa ini sob. Salah satunya waktu gue terpilih untuk jadi ketua ekskul di sekolahan gue, padahal saat awal-awal gue masuk ke sma nie gue gak kepikiran sama sekali untuk jadi ketua ekskul; “tapi apa mungkin takdir tuhan ya sob,,,?”. Nah waktu suruh nyampein visi misi gue, gue bingung sob mau ngomong apa… padahal temen-emen gue yang laennya visi misinya bagus-bagus banget,,,, nah waktunya tiba saat giliran gue untuk menyampaikan visi misi gue,,,, tp, ech, yang terjadi bukannya ge nyampein visi misi malah gue ke inget ama orang tua gue, ,, dan tiba-tiba tanpa terkontrol,, air mat gue tiba-tiba keluar,, gue malah jadi bikin orang-orang yang ada di dalam ruangan itu ikut-ikutan nangis semua,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, tapi yang gak gue sangka sob, gue malah jadi 3 besar kandidat ketua ekskul….. dari situ kehidupan gue jadi tmbah padat,,, dan kira-kira 2 bulanan setelah gue dilantik,, gue mulai ada rasa sama salah satu cewk di sekolahan gue ini sob,, dan gue gak kepengen masa-masa indah ini gue tinggalin kaya waktu gue smp dulu, jadi yaw gue langsung aja bilang ke DIA kalo gue suka sama dia…”tapi unik sob, waktu gue bilang kalo gue suka sama dia, itu gua lakuin waktu gue terbangun dari tidur siang gue,, dan tiba-tiba gue cari hp, trus ngetik deh sms itu, uniknya gue baru nyadar setelah 15 menit setelah itu,, yaw pastinya perasaan gue gugup, bingung, dan gak karuan deh….. ” tapi hasilnya gak mengecewakan sob,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,”gak perlu gue certain untuk yang ini ya sob”…
Hugh capek juga ya didepan computer ngtik-ngetik kaya gini,, ow yaw satulagi tentang gue sob, sebenernya gue gak suka nulis-nulis kaya gini,,,,,, tapi biar lo-loe semua tau aja tentang gue,,,,,,,,,,,, dan satu pesan gue buat loe-loe semua sob,,, “
jangan sekali-kali loe ngecewa’in orang tua loe, apalagi itu ibu loe sendiri, karma sebenernya mereka rela ngelakuin apapun demmi loe semua sob, dan bayangkan kalo hidupm loe kaya ge atau yang laennya, yang jauh dari orang tua selama 16 tahun atau lebih,,, harusnya loe lebih bisa ngebahagiain orang tua loe mulai dari sekarang, jangan Cuma susah,marah,nagis,dan keluh kesah aja yang bisa loe bagi ke orang tua loe sob,,,,,,,,,,,,, pokoknya kalo loe berani buat orang tua loe sedih, apa lagi itu ibu loe,, gue jamin gue bakalan nyamperin loe domanapun loe berada…”
Cukup ini aja brow yang bisa gue bagi buat loe-loe smua, kurang lebihnya gue mohon maaf,, soalnya nie gue di warnet, jadi gak berani lama-lama, takut tekhorrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr duit gue,,,, salam loe gue buat loe-loe semua sob, bye-bye…………………..
Leave a comment Image December 3, 2011 by galih567 Foto(211)
Jangan fikir macem-macem, dan jangan macem-mace tentang foto gue ya,,,,,,,,, n ie gue buat Cuma biar loe-loe semua kalo kangen sama gue langsung aja ke blog gue ini,,, gak perlu loe semua ke rumah gue, soalnya gue gak punya uang buat mbeliin loe-loe semua makanan…. dan yang pasti kalo loe semua ke rumah gue pasti bakalan gue UUUUUSSSSIIRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
Leave a comment November 4, 2011 by galih567
TATA CARA KHUTBAH JUM’AT
Tata Cara Khutbah Jum’at
Membaca basmalah : bismillaahir rahmaanir rahiimi Mengucapkan salam :
assalaamu ‘alaikum wa rahmatullaahi wa barakaatuhu
Adzan Membaca hamdalah : innalhamdalillaah, nahmaduhuu
wa nasta’iinuhuu wa nastaghfiruhu
wa na’uudzubillaahi min syuruuri ‘anfusinaa
wa min syayyi-aati a’maalinaa
man yahdillaahu falaa mudhillalahu
wa man yudhlilhu falaa haadiyalahu
Membaca syahadat :
asyhadu anlaa ilaaha illallah wahdahu laa syariikalaahu
wa asyhadu annaa muhammadan ‘abduhuu wa rasuuluhuu
laa nabiyya ba’dahu Membaca shalawat :
allaahumma shalli ‘alaa syayyidinaa muhammadin
wa ‘alaa aalihii wa shahbihii ‘ajma’iin
Membaca ayat alqur’an yang mengajak bertaqwa kepada allah (biasanya khatib membaca ali imran ayat 102)
fa-uushiikum wa nafsii bit taquullaah
qaalallaahu ta’aala fiil qur’aanil kariim
a’uudzubillaahi minasy syaithoonir rajiim
yaa ayyuhal ladziina ‘aamanuu
ittaquullaaha haqqaa tuqaatihi
wa laa tamuutunnaa illaa wa antum muslimuun
wa qaalallahu ta’aalaa fil qur’aanil karim
audzubillaahimina sy syaitoon nirrojiim …
Membaca ayat alqur’an yang lain sesuai dengan topik khutbah
amma ba’du
Berwasiat untuk diri sendiri dan jamaah agar selalu dan meningkatkan taqwa kepada Allah SWT
Mulai berkhutbah sesuai topiknya memanggil jamaah bisa dengan panggilan
ayyuhal muslimun atau ma’asyiral muslimin rahimakumullah
, atau sidang jum’at yang dirahmati allah.
Menutup khutbah pertama dengan do’a untuk seluruh kaum muslimin dan muslimat
barakallahu lii wa lakum fill qur’aanil azhiim
wa nafa’nii wa iyyakum bima fiihimaa minal aayaati wa dzikril hakiim
wa nafa’anaa bi hadii sayyidal mursaliin
wa biqawlihiil qawiim aquulu qawli haadza
wa astaghfirullaahal ‘azhiim lii wa lakum
wa lii syaa-iril mu’miniina wal mu’minaat
wal muslimiina wal muslimaat min kulli dzanbii
fastaghfiruuhuu innahuu huwas samii’ul ‘aliim
wa innahuu huwal ghafuurur rahiim
Duduk sebentar (tuma’ninah) untuk memberi kesempatan jamaah jum’at untuk beristighfar dan membaca shalawat pelan-pelan
Khutbah kedua aturannya persis sama dengan khutbah pertama semua urutan dari hamdalah, syahadat, shalawat, wasiat taqwa, ayat qur’an, dan do’a untuk seluruh orang muslim/muslimat dan mu’minin/mu’minat harus dipenuhi. Contoh bacaan yang berbeda pada khutbah kedua :
alhamdulillah,
alhamdulillaahi hamdan katsiiraan thayyiban mubaarakan fiihi
kamaa yuhibbu rabbunaa wa yuriidhuu
wa asyhadu an laa ilaaha illallaah wahdahu laa syariikalahu
wa asyhadu annaa muhammadan ‘abduhuu wa rasuuluhu
shallallaahu ‘alaihi wa ‘alaa aalihii wa shahbihi wa sallam
tasliiman katsiiran ilaa yaumid diin
amma ba’du
fattaquullaahu haqqut taqwaa kamaa amar
Bacaan penutup wasiat khutbah kedua dan membaca ayat al qur’an yang menyuruh bershalawat (al ahzab 56)
‘ibaadallaah innallaaha amarakum bi amri bi da-aafiati binafsihi
wa tsanii bimalaaikatihil musabbihati biqudsihi
wa tsullatsaa bikum ayyuhal mu-minuuna min jannati wa insihi
fa qaalallaahu qawlan kariiman
innallaaha wa malaaikatahuu yushalluuuna ‘alan nabii
yaa ayyuhal ladziina ‘aamanuu shalluu ‘alaihi wa salliimu tasliimaa
allaahumma shalli wa sallim wa baarik ‘alaa ‘abdukaa wa rusuulikaa muhammad
wa aridhallaahumma ‘an khulafaa-ur raasyidiin
abi bakri wa ‘umaara wa ‘utsmaana wa ‘alii
wa ‘an syaa-iril aali wash shahaabati ajma’iin
wat taabi’iina wat taabi’it taabi’iina
wa man tabi’ahum bi ihsaanin ilaa yaumid diin
wa ‘alaina ma’ahum birahmatika yaa arhamar raahimiin
Membaca do’a
allahummagh fir lil mu’miniina wal mu’minaat wal muslimiina wal muslimaat
al-ahyaa-i minhum wal amwaat innakas samii’un qariibun mujiibud da’wat
wa yaa qaadhiyal haajaat
allahumma inna….
baca do’a yang lain dan ditutup do’a
rabbanaa aatinaa fid dun-yaa hasanah wa fill aakhiraati hasanah wa qinaa ‘adzaaban naar
Penutup khutbah kedua (bacaan ini didekritkan oleh khalifah umar bin abdul aziz harus dibaca karena pada masa itu khutbah jum’at sering digunakan untuk menyerang lawan politik oleh para khatib, diambil dari surat an nahl 90)
‘ibaadallah
innallaaha ya-muruu bil ‘adli wal ihsaan
wa iitaa-i dzil qurbaa
wa yanhaa ‘anil fahsyaa-i wal munkari wal baghyi
yaizhzhukum la’allakum tadzakkaruun
fadzkurullaaha ‘azhiimi wa yadzkurkum
fastaghfirullaaha yastajib lakum
wasykuruuhu ‘alaa ni’matil latii
wa ladzikrullaahu akbaru wa aqiimish shalah
Iqamat untuk shalat jum’at
Leave a comment July 21, 2011 by galih567 KEPEMIMPINAN Definisi pemimpin Pertama
kepemimpinan berarti melibatkan orang atau pihak lain, yaitu para karyawan atau bawahan (followers). Para karyawan atau bawahan harus memiliki kemauan untuk menerima arahan dari pemimpin. Walaupun demikian, tanpa adanya karyawan atau bawahan, kepemimpinan tidak akan ada juga.
Kedua
seorang pemimpin yang efektif adalah seseorang yang dengan kekuasaannya (his or herpower) mampu menggugah pengikutnya untuk mencapai kinerja yang memuaskan. Menurut French dan Raven (1968), kekuasaan yang dimiliki oleh para pemimpin dapat bersumber dari:
Reward power, yang didasarkan atas persepsi bawahan bahwa pemimpin mempunyai kemampuan dan sumberdaya untuk memberikan penghargaan kepada bawahan yang mengikuti arahan-arahan pemimpinnya.
Coercive power, yang didasarkan atas persepsi bawahan bahwa pemimpin mempunyai kemampuan memberikan hukuman bagi bawahan yang tidak mengikuti arahan-arahan pemimpinnya
Legitimate power, yang didasarkan atas persepsi bawahan bahwa pemimpin mempunyai hak untuk menggunakan pengaruh dan otoritas yang dimilikinya.
Referent power, yang didasarkan atas identifikasi (pengenalan) bawahan terhadap sosok pemimpin. Para pemimpin dapat menggunakan pengaruhnya karena karakteristik pribadinya, reputasinya atau karismanya.
Expert power, yang didasarkan atas persepsi bawahan bahwa pemimpin adalah seeorang yang memiliki kompetensi dan mempunyai keahlian dalam bidangnya.
Para
pemimpin dapat menggunakan bentuk-bentuk kekuasaan atau kekuatan yang berbeda untuk mempengaruhi perilaku bawahan dalam berbagai situasi.
Ketiga
kepemimpinan harus memiliki kejujuran terhadap diri sendiri (integrity), sikap bertanggungjawab yang tulus (compassion), pengetahuan (cognizance), keberanian bertindak sesuai dengan keyakinan (commitment), kepercayaan pada diri sendiri dan orang lain (confidence) dan kemampuan untuk meyakinkan orang lain (communication) dalam membangun organisasi. Walaupun kepemimpinan (leadership) seringkali disamakan dengan manajemen (management), kedua konsep tersebut berbeda.
Model-Model Kepemimpinan
Banyak studi mengenai kecakapan kepemimpinan (leadership skills) yang dibahas dari berbagai perspektif yang telah dilakukan oleh para peneliti. Analisis awal tentang kepemimpinan, dari tahun 1900-an hingga tahun 1950-an, memfokuskan perhatian pada perbedaan karakteristik antara pemimpin (leaders) dan pengikut/karyawan (followers). Karena hasil penelitian pada saat periode tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tidak terdapat satu pun sifat atau watak (trait) atau kombinasi sifat atau watak yang dapat menerangkan sepenuhnya tentang kemampuan para pemimpin, maka perhatian para peneliti bergeser pada masalah pengaruh situasi terhadap kemampuan dan tingkah laku para pemimpin.
Studi-studi kepemimpinan selanjutnya berfokus pada tingkah laku yang diperagakan oleh para pemimpin yang efektif. Untuk memahami faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku para pemimpin yang efektif, para peneliti menggunakan model kontingensi (contingency model). Dengan model kontingensi tersebut para peneliti menguji keterkaitan antara watak pribadi, variabel-variabel situasi dan keefektifan pemimpin.
Studi-studi tentang kepemimpinan pada tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an, sekali lagi memfokuskan perhatiannya kepada karakteristik individual para pemimpin yang mempengaruhi keefektifan mereka dan keberhasilan organisasi yang mereka pimpin. Hasil-hasil penelitian pada periode tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an mengarah kepada kesimpulan bahwa pemimpin dan kepemimpinan adalah persoalan yang sangat penting untuk dipelajari (crucial), namun kedua hal tersebut disadari sebagai komponen organisasi yang sangat komplek.
Dalam perkembangannya, model yang relatif baru dalam studi kepemimpinan disebut sebagai model kepemimpinan transformasional. Model ini dianggap sebagai model yang terbaik dalam menjelaskan karakteristik pemimpin. Konsep kepemimpinan transformasional ini mengintegrasikan ide-ide yang dikembangkan dalam pendekatan watak, gaya dan kontingensi.
model-modelkepemimpinan
1) Model Watak Kepemimpinan (Traits Model of Leadership)
Pada umumnya studi-studi kepemimpinan pada tahap awal mencoba meneliti tentang watak
individu yang melekat pada diri para pemimpin, seperti misalnya: kecerdasan, kejujuran,
kematangan, ketegasan, kecakapan berbicara, kesupelan dalam bergaul, status sosial ekonomi
mereka dan lain-lain (Bass 1960, Stogdill 1974).
Stogdill (1974)
menyatakan bahwa terdapat enam kategori faktor pribadi yang membedakan antara pemimpin dan pengikut, yaitu kapasitas, prestasi, tanggung jawab, partisipasi, status dan situasi. Namun demikian banyak studi yang menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor yang membedakan antara pemimpin dan pengikut dalam satu studi tidak konsisten dan tidak didukung dengan hasil-hasil studi yang lain. Disamping itu, watak pribadi bukanlah faktor yang dominant dalam menentukan keberhasilan kinerja manajerial para pemimpin. Hingga tahun 1950-an, lebih dari 100 studi yang telah dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi watak atau sifat personal yang dibutuhkan oleh pemimpin yang baik, dan dari studi-studi tersebut dinyatakan bahwa hubungan antara karakteristik watak dengan efektifitas kepemimpinan, walaupun positif, tetapi tingkat signifikasinya sangat rendah (Stogdill 1970).
Bukti-bukti yang ada menyarankan bahwa “leadership is a relation that exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situation” (Stogdill 1970). Apabila kepemimpinan didasarkan pada faktor situasi, maka pengaruh watak yang dimiliki oleh para pemimpin mempunyai pengaruh yang tidak signifikan. Kegagalan studi-studi tentang kepimpinan pada periode awal ini, yang tidak berhasil meyakinkan adanya hubungan yang jelas antara watak pribadi pemimpin dan kepemimpinan, membuat para peneliti untuk mencari faktor-faktor lain (selain faktor watak), seperti misalnya faktor situasi, yang diharapkan dapat secara jelas menerangkan perbedaan karakteristik antara pemimpin dan pengikut.
2)
Model Kepemimpinan Situasional (Model of Situasional Leadership)
Model kepemimpinan situasional merupakan pengembangan model watak kepemimpinan dengan fokus utama faktor situasi sebagai variabel penentu kemampuan kepemimpinan. Studi tentang kepemimpinan situasional mencoba mengidentifikasi karakteristik situasi atau keadaan sebagai faktor penentu utama yang membuat seorang pemimpin berhasil melaksanakan tugas-tugas organisasi secara efektif dan efisien. Dan juga model ini membahas aspek kepemimpinan lebih berdasarkan fungsinya, bukan lagi hanya berdasarkan watak kepribadian pemimpin.
Hencley (1973) menyatakan bahwa faktor situasi lebih menentukan keberhasilan seorang pemimpin dibandingkan dengan watak pribadinya. Menurut pendekatan kepemimpinan situasional ini, seseorang bisa dianggap sebagai pemimpin atau pengikut tergantung pada situasi atau keadaan yang dihadapi. Banyak studi yang mencoba untuk mengidentifikasi karakteristik situasi khusus yang bagaimana yang mempengaruhi kinerja para pemimpin. Hoy dan Miskel (1987), misalnya, menyatakan bahwa terdapat empat faktor yang mempengaruhi kinerja pemimpin, yaitu sifat struktural organisasi (structural properties of the organisation), iklim atau lingkungan organisasi (organisational climate), karakteristik tugas atau peran (role characteristics) dan karakteristik bawahan (subordinate characteristics). Kajian model kepemimpinan situasional lebih menjelaskan fenomena kepemimpinan dibandingkan dengan model terdahulu. Namun demikian model ini masih dianggap belum memadai karena model ini tidak dapat memprediksikan kecakapan kepemimpinan (leadership skills) yang mana yang lebih efektif dalam situasi tertentu.
3) Model Pemimpin yang Efektif (Model of Effective Leaders)
Model kajian kepemimpinan ini memberikan informasi tentang tipe-tipe tingkah laku (types of behaviours) para pemimpin yang efektif. Tingkah laku para pemimpin dapat dikatagorikan menjadi dua dimensi, yaitu struktur kelembagaan (initiating structure) dan konsiderasi (consideration). Dimensi struktur kelembagaan menggambarkan sampai sejauh mana para pemimpin mendefinisikan dan menyusun interaksi kelompok dalam rangka pencapaian tujuan organisasi serta sampai sejauh mana para pemimpin mengorganisasikan kegiatan-kegiatan kelompok mereka. Dimensi ini dikaitkan dengan usaha para pemimpin mencapai tujuan organisasi. Dimensi konsiderasi menggambarkan sampai sejauh mana tingkat hubungan kerja antara pemimpin dan bawahannya, dan sampai sejauh mana pemimpin memperhatikan kebutuhan sosial dan emosi bagi bawahan seperti misalnya kebutuhan akan pengakuan, kepuasan kerja dan penghargaan yang mempengaruhi kinerja mereka dalam organisasi. Dimensi konsiderasi ini juga dikaitkan dengan adanya pendekatan kepemimpinan yang mengutamakan komunikasi dua arah, partisipasi dan hubungan manusiawi (human relations).
Halpin (1966), Blake and Mouton (1985)
menyatakan bahwa tingkah laku pemimpin yang efektif cenderung menunjukkan kinerja yang tinggi terhadap dua aspek di atas. Mereka berpendapat bahwa pemimpin yang efektif adalah pemimpin yang menata kelembagaan organisasinya secara sangat terstruktur, dan mempunyai hubungan yang persahabatan yang sangat baik, saling percaya, saling menghargai dan senantiasa hangat dengan bawahannya. Secara ringkas, model kepemimpinan efektif ini mendukung anggapan bahwa pemimpin yang efektif adalah pemimpin yang dapat menangani kedua aspek organisasi dan manusia sekaligus dalam organisasinya.
4) Model Kepemimpinan Kontingensi (Contingency Model)
Studi kepemimpinan jenis ini memfokuskan perhatiannya pada kecocokan antara karakteristik watak pribadi pemimpin, tingkah lakunya dan variabel-variabel situasional. Kalau model kepemimpinan situasional berasumsi bahwa situasi yang berbeda membutuhkan tipe kepemimpinan yang berbeda, maka model kepemimpinan kontingensi memfokuskan perhatian yang lebih luas, yakni pada aspek-aspek keterkaitan antara kondisi atau variabel situasional dengan watak atau tingkah laku dan kriteria kinerja pemimpin (Hoy and Miskel 1987).
Model kepemimpinan Fiedler (1967) disebut sebagai model kontingensi karena model tersebut beranggapan bahwa kontribusi pemimpin terhadap efektifitas kinerja kelompok tergantung pada cara atau gaya kepemimpinan (leadership style) dan kesesuaian situasi (the favourableness of the situation) yang dihadapinya. Menurut Fiedler, ada tiga faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kesesuaian situasi dan ketiga faktor ini selanjutnya mempengaruhi keefektifan pemimpin. Ketiga faktor tersebut adalah hubungan antara pemimpin dan bawahan (leader-member relations), struktur tugas (the task structure) dan kekuatan posisi (position power).
5) Model Kepemimpinan Transformasional (Model of Transformational Leadership)
Model kepemimpinan transformasional merupakan model yang relatif baru dalam studi-studi kepemimpinan. Burns (1978) merupakan salah satu penggagas yang secara eksplisit mendefinisikan kepemimpinan transformasional. Menurutnya, untuk memperoleh pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang model kepemimpinan transformasional, model ini perlu dipertentangkan dengan model kepemimpinan transaksional. Kepemimpinan transaksional didasarkan pada otoritas birokrasi dan legitimasi di dalam organisasi. Pemimpin transaksional pada hakekatnya menekankan bahwa seorang pemimpin perlu menentukan apa yang perlu dilakukan para bawahannya untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi. Disamping itu, pemimpin transaksional cenderung memfokuskan diri pada penyelesaian tugas-tugas organisasi.
Untuk memotivasi agar bawahan melakukan tanggungjawab mereka, para pemimpin transaksional sangat mengandalkan pada sistem pemberian penghargaan dan hukuman kepada bawahannya. Sebaliknya, Burns menyatakan bahwa model kepemimpinan transformasional pada hakekatnya menekankan seorang pemimpin perlu memotivasi para bawahannya untuk melakukan tanggungjawab mereka lebih dari yang mereka harapkan. Pemimpin transformasional harus mampu mendefinisikan, mengkomunikasikan dan mengartikulasikan visi organisasi, dan bawahan harus menerima dan mengakui kredibilitas pemimpinnya.Hater dan Bass (1988) menyatakan bahwa “the dynamic of transformational leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a shared vision of the future, or goingbeyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for compliance”. Dengan demikian, pemimpin transformasional merupakan pemimpin yang karismatik dan mempunyai peran sentral dan strategis dalam membawa organisasi mencapai tujuannya. Pemimpin transformasional juga harusmempunyai kemampuan untuk menyamakan visi masa depan dengan bawahannya, serta mempertinggi kebutuhan bawahan pada tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari pada apa yang mereka butuhkan. Menurut Yammarino dan Bass (1990), pemimpin transformasional harus mampu membujuk para bawahannya melakukan tugas-tugas mereka melebihi kepentingan mereka sendiri demi kepentingan organisasi yang lebih besar.
Yammarino dan Bass (1990) juga menyatakan bahwa pemimpin transformasional mengartikulasikan visi masa depan organisasi yang realistik, menstimulasi bawahan dengan cara yang intelektual, dan menaruh parhatian pada perbedaan-perbedaan yang dimiliki oleh bawahannya. Dengan demikian, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Tichy and Devanna (1990), keberadaan para pemimpin transformasional mempunyai efek transformasi baik pada tingkat organisasi maupun pada tingkat individu.
Dalam buku mereka yang berjudul “Improving Organizational Effectiveness through Transformational Leadership”, Bass dan Avolio (1994) mengemukakan bahwa kepemimpinan transformasional mempunyai empat dimensi yang disebutnya sebagai “the Four I’s”. Dimensi yang pertama disebutnya sebagai idealized influence (pengaruh ideal). Dimensi yang pertama ini digambarkan sebagai perilaku pemimpin yang membuat para pengikutnya mengagumi, menghormati dan sekaligus mempercayainya. Dimensi yang kedua disebut sebagai inspirational motivation (motivasi inspirasi). Dalam dimensi ini, pemimpin transformasional digambarkan sebagai pemimpin yang mampu mengartikulasikan pengharapan yang jelas terhadap prestasi bawahan, mendemonstrasikan komitmennya terhadap seluruh tujuan organisasi, dan mampu menggugah spirit tim dalam organisasi melalui penumbuhan entusiasme dan optimisme. Dimensi yang ketiga disebut sebagai intellectual stimulation (stimulasi intelektual). Pemimpin transformasional harus mampu menumbuhkan ide-ide baru, memberikan solusi yang kreatif terhadap permasalahan-permasalahan yang dihadapi bawahan, dan memberikan motivasi kepada bawahan untuk mencari pendekatan-pendekatan yang baru dalam melaksanakan tugas-tugas organisasi. Dimensi yang terakhir disebut sebagai individualized consideration (konsiderasi individu). Dalam dimensi ini, pemimpin transformasional digambarkan sebagai seorang pemimpin yang mau mendengarkan dengan penuh perhatian masukan-masukan bawahan dan secara khusus mau memperhatikan kebutuhan-kebutuhan bawahan akan pengembangan karir. Walaupun penelitian mengenai model transformasional ini termasuk relatif baru, beberapa hasil penelitian mendukung validitas keempat dimensi yang dipaparkan oleh Bass dan Avilio di atas. Banyak peneliti dan praktisi manajemen yang sepakat bahwa model kepemimpinan transformasional merupakan konsep kepemimpinan yang terbaik dalam menguraikan karakteristik pemimpin (Sarros dan Butchatsky 1996). Konsep kepemimpinan transformasional ini mengintegrasikan ide-ide yang dikembangkan dalam pendekatan-pendekatan watak (trait), gaya (style) dan kontingensi, dan juga konsep kepemimpinan transformasional menggabungkan dan menyempurnakan konsep-konsep terdahulu yang dikembangkan oleh ahli-ahli sosiologi (seperti misalnya Weber 1947) dan ahli-ahli politik (seperti misalnya Burns 1978).
Beberapa ahli manajemen menjelaskan konsep-konsep kepimimpinan yang mirip dengan kepemimpinan transformasional sebagai kepemimpinan yang karismatik, inspirasional dan yang mempunyai visi (visionary). Meskipun terminologi yang digunakan berbeda, namun fenomenafenomana kepemimpinan yang digambarkan dalam konsep-konsep tersebut lebih banyak persamaannya daripada perbedaannya. Bryman (1992) menyebut kepemimpinan transformasional sebagai kepemimpinan baru (the new leadership), sedangkan Sarros dan Butchatsky (1996) menyebutnya sebagai pemimpin penerobos (breakthrough leadership).
Pemimpin transformasional dianggap sebagai model pemimpin yang tepat dan yang mampu untuk terus-menerus meningkatkan efisiensi, produktifitas, dan inovasi usaha guna meningkatkan daya saing dalam dunia yang lebih bersaing.
Leave a comment July 4, 2011 by galih567 LINUX Linux (commonly / ˈ l ɪ n ə k s / lin -əks in English , [5] [6] also pronounced /ˈlɪnʊks/ lin -uuks [7]
in Europe) refers to the family of
Unix-like computer operating systems using the Linux kernel
. Linux can be installed on a wide variety of computer
hardware , ranging from mobile phones , tablet computers , routers and video game consoles , to desktop computers , mainframes and supercomputers . [8] [9] [10] [11]
Linux is a leading
server
operating system, and runs the 10 fastest
supercomputers in the world. [12]
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of
free and open source software
collaboration; typically all the underlying
source code
can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the
GNU General Public License
. Typically Linux is packaged in a format known as a
Linux distribution
for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions include
Debian
(and its derivatives such as
Ubuntu ), Fedora and openSUSE
. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel and supporting
utilities and libraries
to fulfill the distribution’s intended use.
A distribution oriented toward desktop use may include the
X Window System , the GNOME and KDE Plasma desktop environments
. Other distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as
LXDE or Xfce
for use on older or less-powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit any graphical environment from the standard install and instead include other software such as the
Apache HTTP Server and a SSH server like OpenSSH
. Because Linux is freely redistributable, it is possible for anyone to create a distribution for any intended use. Commonly used applications with desktop Linux systems include the
Mozilla Firefox web browser, the OpenOffice.org or LibreOffice
office application suites, and the
GIMP image editor.
The name “Linux” comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by
Linus Torvalds
. The main supporting
user space
system tools and libraries from the
GNU Project
(announced in 1983 by
Richard Stallman
) are the basis for the
Free Software Foundation ‘s preferred name GNU/Linux . [13] [14] Unix The Unix
operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at
AT&T
‘s Bell Laboratories in the
United States by Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie , Douglas McIlroy , and Joe Ossanna
. It was first released in 1971 and was initially entirely written in
assembly language
, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language
C by Dennis Ritchie
(with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier
portability
to different computer platforms. With a legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system’s source code to anyone who asked,
[15]
Unix quickly grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the legal glitch requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a
proprietary product. Richard Stallman
, founder of the
GNU project GNU The GNU Project
, started in 1983 by
Richard Stallman
, had the goal of creating a “complete Unix-compatible software system” composed entirely of
free software
. Work began in 1984.
[16]
Later, in 1985, Stallman started the
Free Software Foundation and wrote the
GNU General Public License
(GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries,
compilers , text editors , a Unix shell
, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as
device drivers , daemons , and the kernel
were stalled and incomplete.
[17]
Linus Torvalds has said that if the
GNU kernel
had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.
[18] BSD
Although not released until 1992 due to
legal complications , development of 386BSD , from which NetBSD and FreeBSD
descended, predated that of Linux.
Linus Torvalds
has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.
[19] MINIX Andrew S. Tanenbaum
(left), author of the
MINIX operating system and Linus Torvalds
(right), principal author of the
Linux kernel MINIX
is an inexpensive minimal
Unix-like
operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by
Andrew S. Tanenbaum . Starting with version 3, MINIX was free
and redesigned for “serious” use.
In 1991 while attending the
University of Helsinki
, Torvalds, curious about the operating systems
[20]
and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX limiting it to educational use only (which prevented any commercial use), began to work on his own operating system which eventually became the
Linux kernel .
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later Linux matured and it became possible for Linux to be developed under itself.
[21]
Also GNU applications replaced all MINIX ones, because with code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling operating system. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux available for commercial use, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.
[22]
Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.
[17]
Commercial and popular uptake
Ubuntu is a popular distribution of Linux
Main article: Linux adoption
Today, Linux distributions are used in every domain, from
embedded systems to supercomputers , [23] [24]
and have secured a place in
server
installations often using the popular
LAMP application stack. [25]
Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.
[26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32]
They have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.
[33] [34]
News of the Russian military creating their own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.
[35]
The Indian state of
Kerala
has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.
[36] [37] China
uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its
Loongson
processor family to achieve technology independence.
[38] In Spain
some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like
gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia . Portugal
is also using its own Linux distribution
Caixa Mágica
, used in the Magalhães netbook
[39]
and the e-escola government program.
[40] France and Germany
have also taken steps towards the adoption of Linux.
[41]
Linux distributions have also become popular in the
netbook
market, with many devices such as the
ASUS Eee PC and Acer Aspire One
shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.
[42] Current development
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of
Linux distributions . Design
A Linux-based system is a modular
Unix-like
operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a
monolithic kernel , the Linux kernel
, which handles process control, networking, and
peripheral and file system access. Device drivers
are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.
Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system’s higher-level functionality. The GNU
userland
is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the
C library , a popular shell
, and many of the common
Unix tools
which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The
graphical user interface
(or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the
X Window System . User interface See also: User interface
Users operate a Linux-based system through a
command line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface
(GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, by which the CLI is available through
terminal emulator
windows or on a separate
virtual console
. Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU
userland
, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple
inter-process communication . A graphical terminal emulator
program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop. A Linux system typically implements a CLI by a
shell
, which is also the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive
desktop environments KDE Plasma Desktop , GNOME , and Xfce , [43]
though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the
X Window System
, often simply called “X”. It provides
network transparency
and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application.
[44]
Other GUIs may be classified as simple
X window managers , such as FVWM , Enlightenment , and Window Maker
, which provide a
minimalist
functionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (
Metacity for GNOME, Kwin for KDE, Xfwm
for Xfce as of 2010) although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.
Development
A summarized history of
Unix-like
operating systems showing Linux’s origins. Of note, Linux shares similar architectural designs and concepts (as part of the
POSIX
standard) but does not share non-free source code with the original
Unix or MINIX . Main article: Linux distribution
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the
Linux kernel
and other components are
free and open source software
. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.
[45] Some free and open source
software licenses are based on the principle of
copyleft
, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a
copyleft
piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the
GNU GPL
, is a form of
copyleft
, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the
GNU project .
Linux based distributions are intended by developers for
interoperability
with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to
POSIX , [46] SUS , [47] ISO , and ANSI
standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.
[48]
Free software projects, although developed in a
collaborative
fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a
Linux distribution . A Linux distribution
, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a
package manager such as dpkg , Synaptic , YAST , or Portage
to install, remove and update all of a system’s software from one central location.
Community See also: Free software community and Linux User Group
A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis,
Debian
being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as
Red Hat does with Fedora and Novell does with openSUSE .
In many cities and regions, local associations known as
Linux User Groups
(LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many
Internet
communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have
IRC chatrooms or newsgroups . Online forums
are another means for support, with notable examples being
LinuxQuestions.org
and the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones for
Ubuntu , Fedora , and Gentoo
. Linux distributions host
mailing lists
; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print
magazines
on Linux often include
cover disks
including software or even complete Linux distributions.
[49] [50] Although Linux distributions
are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of
free software
. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to the traditional, open source community.
[51]
Some of the major corporations that contribute include
Dell , IBM , HP , Oracle , Sun Microsystems
(now part of Oracle),
Novell , and Nokia
. A number of corporations, notably
Red Hat and Novell
, have built a significant business around Linux distributions.
The free software licenses
, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as
symbiotic
. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.
Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as
CP/M , Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS
prior to 7.5 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturers computer that shared the same architecture.
Programming on Linux
Linux distributions support dozens of
programming languages
. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the
GNU toolchain
, which includes the
GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system . [ citation needed ]
Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for
Ada , C , C++ , Java , and Fortran . Proprietary
compilers for Linux include the
Intel C++ Compiler , Sun Studio
, and IBM XL
C / C++ Compiler. BASIC
in the form of
Visual Basic
is supported in such forms as
Gambas , FreeBASIC , and XBasic .
Most distributions also include support for
PHP , Perl , Ruby , Python and other dynamic languages
. While not as common, Linux also supports
C# (via Mono ), Vala , and Scheme
. A number of
Java Virtual Machines
and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (
HotSpot
), and IBM’s J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like
Kaffe and JikesRVM .
The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of
GNOME and KDE . [ citation needed ]
These projects are based on the
GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits
, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of
Integrated development environments available including Anjuta , Code::Blocks , CodeLite , Eclipse , Geany , ActiveState Komodo , KDevelop , Lazarus , MonoDevelop , NetBeans , Qt Creator and Omnis Studio
, while the long-established editors
Vim and Emacs remain popular. [52] Uses
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including:
computer architecture support, embedded systems
, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for
real-time
applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only
free software
. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.
[53]
Linux is a widely
ported
operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of
computer architectures
: in the hand-held
ARM -based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9 , System z10
; in devices ranging from
mobile phones to supercomputers . [54]
Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The
ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux
kernel fork may run on systems without a
memory management unit
. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as
Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs , video game consoles , portable music players , and mobile phones .
There are several industry associations and hardware
conferences
devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as
FreedomHEC . Desktop Main article: Desktop Linux
The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.
[55]
Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment, with the two most popular environments being
GNOME
(which can utilize additional
shells
such as the default
GNOME Shell , the Ubuntu Unity ), and the KDE Plasma Desktop .
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007
Con Kolivas
accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a “tell all” interview on the topic.
[56]
Since then a significant amount of development has been undertaken in an effort to improve the desktop experience. Projects such as
Upstart
aim for a faster boot time.
[57]
Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example
Mozilla Firefox , OpenOffice.org and Blender
have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux, such as
Pidgin , and GIMP
, and were ported to other operating systems including
Windows and Mac OS X
due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux;
[58] see
List of proprietary software for Linux
. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as
AutoDesk Maya
, Softimage XSI and
Apple Shake
, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. There are also
several companies
that have ported their own or other companies’ games to Linux.
Many types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a
free software
application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with
Skype and some video games . [ citation needed ] Furthermore, the Wine
project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux.
CrossOver
is a proprietary solution based on the open source
Wine
project that supports running Windows versions of
Microsoft Office , Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks , Adobe Photoshop
versions through CS2, and many popular games such as
World of Warcraft and Team Fortress 2
. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as
desktop publishing [59] and professional audio , [60] [61] [62]
there is equivalent software available on Linux.
The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform
language localization
of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the
Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix
distribution was available significantly before
Microsoft Windows XP
was translated to Sinhalese.
[ citation needed ]
In this case the
Lanka Linux User Group
played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors,
linguists
, and local developers.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the
Synaptic Package Manager , PackageKit , and Yum Extender
. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty, compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it’s hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux.
Leave a comment May 14, 2011 by galih567 GAMBAR LUCU
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Leave a comment May 14, 2011 by galih567 biografi BUNG KARNO
Presiden pertama Republik Indonesia, Soekarno yang biasa dipanggil Bung Karno, lahir di Blitar, Jawa Timur, 6 Juni 1901 dan meninggal di Jakarta, 21 Juni 1970. Ayahnya bernama Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo dan ibunya Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai. Semasa hidupnya, beliau mempunyai tiga istri dan dikaruniai delapan anak. Dari istri Fatmawati mempunyai anak Guntur, Megawati, Rachmawati, Sukmawati dan Guruh. Dari istri Hartini mempunyai Taufan dan Bayu, sedangkan dari istri Ratna Sari Dewi, wanita turunan Jepang bernama asli Naoko Nemoto mempunyai anak Kartika..
Masa kecil Soekarno hanya beberapa tahun hidup bersama orang tuanya di Blitar. Semasa SD hingga tamat, beliau tinggal di Surabaya, indekos di rumah Haji Oemar Said Tokroaminoto, politisi kawakan pendiri Syarikat Islam. Kemudian melanjutkan sekolah di HBS (Hoogere Burger School). Saat belajar di HBS itu, Soekarno telah menggembleng jiwa nasionalismenya. Selepas lulus HBS tahun 1920, pindah ke Bandung dan melanjut ke THS (Technische Hoogeschool atau sekolah Tekhnik Tinggi yang sekarang menjadi ITB). Ia berhasil meraih gelar “Ir” pada 25 Mei 1926.
Kemudian, beliau merumuskan ajaran Marhaenisme dan mendirikan PNI (Partai Nasional lndonesia) pada 4 Juli 1927, dengan tujuan Indonesia Merdeka. Akibatnya, Belanda, memasukkannya ke penjara Sukamiskin, Bandung pada 29 Desember 1929. Delapan bulan kemudian baru disidangkan. Dalam pembelaannya berjudul Indonesia Menggugat, beliau menunjukkan kemurtadan Belanda, bangsa yang mengaku lebih maju itu.
Pembelaannya itu membuat Belanda makin marah. Sehingga pada Juli 1930, PNI pun dibubarkan. Setelah bebas pada tahun 1931, Soekarno bergabung dengan Partindo dan sekaligus memimpinnya. Akibatnya, beliau kembali ditangkap Belanda dan dibuang ke Ende, Flores, tahun 1933. Empat tahun kemudian dipindahkan ke Bengkulu.
Setelah melalui perjuangan yang cukup panjang, Bung Karno dan Bung Hatta memproklamasikan kemerdekaan RI pada 17 Agustus 1945. Dalam sidang BPUPKI tanggal 1 Juni 1945, Ir.Soekarno mengemukakan gagasan tentang dasar negara yang disebutnya Pancasila. Tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, Ir Soekarno dan Drs. Mohammad Hatta memproklamasikan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Dalam sidang PPKI, 18 Agustus 1945 Ir.Soekarno terpilih secara aklamasi sebagai Presiden Republik Indonesia yang pertama.
Sebelumnya, beliau juga berhasil merumuskan Pancasila yang kemudian menjadi dasar (ideologi) Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Beliau berupaya mempersatukan nusantara. Bahkan Soekarno berusaha menghimpun bangsa-bangsa di Asia, Afrika, dan Amerika Latin dengan Konferensi Asia Afrika di Bandung pada 1955 yang kemudian berkembang menjadi Gerakan Non Blok.
Pemberontakan G-30-S/PKI melahirkan krisis politik hebat yang menyebabkan penolakan MPR atas pertanggungjawabannya. Sebaliknya MPR mengangkat Soeharto sebagai Pejabat Presiden. Kesehatannya terus memburuk, yang pada hari Minggu, 21 Juni 1970 ia meninggal dunia di RSPAD. Ia disemayamkan di Wisma Yaso, Jakarta dan dimakamkan di Blitar, Jatim di dekat makam ibundanya, Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai. Pemerintah menganugerahkannya sebagai “Pahlawan Proklamasi”. (kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id)
Leave a comment May 14, 2011 by galih567 biografi messi
Pada awalnya pemain bertinggi badan 169 cm ini beraksi di klub Grandoli, klub asuhan Jorge Messi yang tak lain adalah ayahnya Messi. Kemudian ia beralih ke Newell’s Old Boys. Namun klub ini tidak sanggup membayar biaya terapi hormon yang mencapai 500 pounds perbulannya. Untunglah Barcelona segera menangkap potensi hebat Messi Giovanni dan menawarinya pindah ke Spanyol untuk bergabung bersama klub Katalan ini plus membiayai seluruh biaya terapi.
“Saya hanya butuh waktu kurang dari 10 menit untuk yakin bahwa dia memang seorang bintang masa depan.” ucap pelatih Barcelona B kala itu, Carles Rexach. “Sepanjang karier saya selama 40 tahun, tak pernah saya melihat seorang pemain yang benar-benar bertalenta. seseorang dengan pengetahuan sepak bola minim pun akan bisa menyadari kemampuan hebat messi.”
Bakatnya menarik perhatian dunia sewaktu beraksi bersama tim nasional sepak bola Argentina di Piala Dunia Remaja dan Barcelona pada tahun 2005. Pada tahun 2006 dia berhasil membantu Barcelona sebelum mengalami cedera dalam pertandingan perempatfinal menghadapi Chelsea di Liga Champions. Messi yang mempunyai tubuh yang agak kecil ini sangat lincah di atas lapangan dan kerap membuka ruang kepada rekan-rekannya yang memburu gol. instingnya sebagai pemain sepak bola semakin terasah sejak memperkuat tim barcelona senior, terlebih perpaduannya dalam bermain bersama bintang dari brazil kala itu Ronaldinho semakin mematangkannya sebagai pesepak bola andal seperti saat ini.
Bukti dari kualitas permainannya adalah dengan memberi kontribusi terhadap klub nya Barcelona dalam meraih banyak gelar, dan puncaknya diraih bersama barcelona pada tahun 2009 yang lalu, dimana dari semua kejuaraan yang diikuti oleh klub Barcelona, mereka meraih semua gelar, totalnya sebanyak 6 (enam) gelar (Sextuple) pada tahun 2009. Hal ini ditandai oleh messi dengan meraih golden booth award serta Most Valauble player di Champions League serta meraih penghargaan tertinggi didunia sepak bola dengan meraih predikat sebagai Pemain Terbaik Eropa (Balon d’or) dan Pemain terbaik Dunia Versi FIFA.
Leave a comment May 12, 2011 by galih567 gelombang ELEKTOMAKNETIK
Siapakah Cristiano Ronaldo? Atau, siapakah vokalis band Peter Pan? Jika kamu dihadapkan pada pertanyaan semacam itu dapat dipastikan kamu bisa menjawabnya, bukan? Siapa yang tidak kenal CR7 (sebutan buat Cristiano Ronaldo) atau Ariel Peter Pan? Walaupun kamu tidak pernah bertemu secara langsung dengan keduanya, kamu pasti kenal dengan mereka, ya kan? Kok bisa ya! Walaupun kamu tidak pernah bertemu dengan mereka kamu pasti sering melihat mereka melalui TV, bukan begitu? Sekarang, apa yang membuat kamu bisa menonton TV untuk melihat pertandingan sepak bola yang sedang berlangsung di tempat lain yang sangat jauh? Tahukah kamu prinsip dan konsep apa yang melandasi teknologi dan fenomena ini?
Saat ini hampir semua orang memiliki peralatan yang satu ini. Dia begitu kecil yang bisa dengan nyaman diletakkan di dalam saku, namun dianggap memiliki fungsi yang sangat besar terutama untuk berkomunikasi. Ya, benda itu adalah sebuah ponsel (telepon seluler). Saat ini ponsel tidak hanya digunakan untuk menelpon saja tetapi juga untuk fungsi lain seperti mengirim dan menerima pesan singkat (sms), mendengarkan musik, atau mengambil foto. Bagaimana perangkat ponsel dapat terhubung dengan perangkat ponsel yang lain padahal mereka saling berjauhan?
Konsep yang bisa menjelaskan fenomena ini adalah konsep gelombang elektromagnetik. Dan, konsep gelombang elektromagnetik ternyata sangat luas tidak hanya berkaitan dengan TV atau ponsel saja, melainkan banyak aplikasi lain yang bisa sering kita temukan sehari-hari di sekitar kita. Aplikasi tersebut meliputi microwave, radio, radar, atau sinar-x.
Sebagaimana yang telah dibahas sebelumnya bahwa ada dua hukum dasar yang menghubungkan gejala kelistrikan dan kemagnetan.
Pertama, arus listrik dapat menghasilkan (menginduksi) medan magnet. Ini dikenal sebagai gejala
induksi magnet
. Peletak dasar konsep ini adalah Oersted yang telah menemukan gejala ini secara eksperimen dan dirumuskan secara lengkap oleh Ampere. Gejala induksi magnet dikenal sebagai
Hukum Ampere .
Michael Faraday, penemu induksi elektromagnetik
Kedua, medan magnet yang berubah-ubah terhadap waktu dapat menghasilkan (menginduksi) medan listrik dalam bentuk arus listrik. Gejala ini dikenal sebagai gejala
induksi elektromagnet
. Konsep induksi elektromagnet ditemukan secara eksperimen oleh Michael Faraday dan dirumuskan secara lengkap oleh Joseph Henry. Hukum induksi elektromagnet sendiri kemudian dikenal sebagai Hukum
Faraday-Henry .
Dari kedua prinsip dasar listrik magnet di atas dan dengan mempertimbangkan konsep simetri yang berlaku dalam hukum alam, James Clerk Maxwell mengajukan suatu usulan. Usulan yang dikemukakan Maxwell, yaitu bahwa jika medan magnet yang berubah terhadap waktu dapat menghasilkan medan listrik maka hal sebaliknya boleh jadi dapat terjadi. Dengan demikian Maxwell mengusulkan bahwa medan listrik yang berubah terhadap waktu dapat menghasilkan (menginduksi) medan magnet. Usulan Maxwell ini kemudian menjadi hukum ketiga yang menghubungkan antara kelistrikan dan kemagnetan.
James Clerk Maxwell peletak dasar teori gelombang elektromagnetik
Jadi, prinsip ketiga adalah medan listrik yang berubah-ubah terhadap waktu dapat menghasilkan medan magnet. Prinsip ketiga ini yang dikemukakan oleh Maxwell pada dasarnya merupakan pengembangan dari rumusan hukum Ampere. Oleh karena itu, prinsip ini dikenal dengan nama
Hukum Ampere-Maxwell .
Dari ketiga prinsip dasar kelistrikan dan kemagnetan di atas, Maxwell melihat adanya suatu pola dasar. Medan magnet yang berubah terhadap waktu dapat membangkitkan medan listrik yang juga berubah-ubah terhadap waktu, dan medan listrik yang berubah terhadap waktu juga dapat menghasilkan medan magnet. Jika proses ini berlangsung secara kontinu maka akan dihasilkan medan magnet dan medan listrik secara kontinu. Jika medan magnet dan medan listrik ini secara serempak merambat (menyebar) di dalam ruang ke segala arah maka ini merupakan gejala gelombang. Gelombang semacam ini disebut
gelombang elektromagnetik
karena terdiri dari medan listrik dan medan magnet yang merambat dalam ruang.
Pada mulanya gelombang elektromagnetik masih berupa ramalan dari Maxwell yang dengan intuisinya mampu melihat adanya pola dasar dalam kelistrikan dan kemagnetan, sebagaimana telah dibahas di atas. Kenyataan ini menjadikan J C Maxwell dianggap sebagai penemu dan perumus dasar-dasar gelombang elektromagnetik.
Teori Maxwell tentang listrik dan magnet meramalkan adanya gelombang elektromgnetik
Ramalan Maxwell tentang gelombang elektromagnetik ternyata benar-benar terbukti. Adalah Heinrich Hertz yang membuktikan adanya gelombang elektromagnetik melalui eksperimennya. Eksperimen Hertz sendiri berupa pembangkitan gelombang elektromagnetik dari sebuah dipol listrik (dua kutub bermuatan listrik dengan muatan yang berbeda, positif dan negatif yang berdekatan) sebagai pemancar dan dipol listrik lain sebagai penerima. Antena pemancar dan penerima yang ada saat ini menggunakan prinsip seperti ini.
diagram skematik eksperimen Hertz
Melalui eksperimennya ini Hertz berhasil membangkitkan gelombang elektromagnetik dan terdeteksi oleh bagian penerimanya. Eksperimen ini berhasil membuktikan bahwa gelombang elektromagnetik yang awalnya hanya berupa rumusan teoritis dari Maxwell, benar-benar ada sekaligus mengukuhkan teori Maxwell tentang gelombang elektromagnetik.
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