Article: the decentralized model of production
Linux (pronounced i/ˈlɪnəks/ LIN-əks[9][10] or, less frequently, /ˈlaɪnəks/ LYN-əks[10][11]) is a Unix-like and mostly POSIX-compliant[12] computer operating system (OS) assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[13] an operating system kernel first released on October 5, 1991 by Linus Torvalds.[14][15] The Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is the most prominent example of open-source development.
The open-source model, or collaborative development from multiple independent sources, generates an increasingly more diverse scope of design perspective than any one company is capable of developing and sustaining long term. A report by the Standish Group (from 2008) states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers.
'LINUX
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The underlyingsource code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.
History
History of free and open source software
End of 1990s: Foundation of the Open Source Initiative
In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other and evolve the field of computing. Eventually open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980.
In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar, a reflective analysis of the hacker community and free software principles. The paper received significant attention in early 1998, and was one factor in motivating Netscape Communications Corporation to release their popular Netscape Communicator Internet suite as free software. This source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer.
Netscape's act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundation's free software ideas and perceived benefits to the commercial software industry. They concluded that FSF's social activism was not appealing to companies like Netscape, and looked for a way to rebrand the free software movement to emphasize the business potential of sharing and collaborating on software source code. The new term they chose was "open source", which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term and evangelize open-source principles. The Free software movement was lounched in 1983. In 1998 a Group of individual adovated that the team free software should be replace by open source software should be replace by open source software(OSS) as an expression which is less and ambijuoss & more comfortable for the corporate word.
While the Open Source Initiative sought to encourage the use of the new term and evangelize the principles it adhered to, commercial software vendors found themselves increasingly threatened by the concept of freely distributed software and universal access to an application's source code. A Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that "open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I can't imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and the intellectual-property business." However, while FOSS has historically played a role outside of the mainstream of private software development, companies as large as Microsoft have begun to develop official open-source presences on the Internet. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in today's competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS.
The free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the term free software should be replaced by open-source software (OSS) as an expression which is less ambiguous and more comfortable for the corporate world. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, so that anybody may also develop the same software or understand its internal functioning. With open-source software, generally anyone is allowed to create modifications of it, port it to new operating systems and processor architectures, share it with others or, in some cases, market it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source – in particular, the heightened value proposition from open source (when compared to most proprietary formats) in the following categories:
Security Affordability Transparency Perpetuity Interoperability Flexibility
Localization—particularly in the context of local governments (who make software decisions). Casson and Ryan argue that "governments have an inherent responsibility and fiduciary duty to taxpayers" which includes the careful analysis of these factors when deciding to purchase proprietary software or implement an open-source option.
The Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition. The most prominent and popular example is the GNU General Public License (GPL), which "allows free distribution under the condition that further developments and applications are put under the same licence", thus also free.
The open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7, 1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator (as Mozilla). A group of individuals at the session included Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, Tom Paquin, Jamie Zawinski, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Sameer Parekh, Eric Allman, Greg Olson, Paul Vixie, John Ousterhout, Guido van Rossum, Philip Zimmermann, John Gilmore and Eric S. Raymond. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigator's source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the word "free" in English.
Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, while others do not distinguish between open-source and free software movements.
The Free Software Foundation (FSF), started in 1985, intended the word "free" to mean freedom to distribute (or "free as in free speech") and not freedom from cost (or "free as in free beer"). Since a great deal of free software already was (and still is) free of charge, such free software became associated with zero cost, which seemed anti-commercial.
The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens. With at least 20 years of evidence from case histories of closed software development versus open development already provided by the Internet developer community, the OSI presented the "open source" case to commercial businesses, like Netscape. The OSI hoped that the usage of the label "open source", a term suggested by Peterson of the Foresight Institute at the strategy session, would eliminate ambiguity, particularly for individuals who perceive "free software" as anti-commercial. They sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to register "open source" as a service mark for the OSI, but that attempt was impractical by trademark standards. Meanwhile, due to the presentation of Raymond's paper to the upper management at Netscape—Raymond only discovered when he read the Press Release, and was called by Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale's PA later in the day—Netscape released its Navigator source code as open source, with favorable results.
Definitions
The Open Source Initiative's (OSI) definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition. In addition, many of the worlds largest open source software projects and contributors, including Debian, Drupal Association, FreeBSD Foundation, Linux Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Wikimedia Foundation, Wordpress Foundation have committed to upholding the OSI's mission and Open Source Definition through the OSI Affiliate Agreement.
OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Perens. Perens did not base his writing on the "four freedoms" from the Free Software Foundation (FSF), which were only widely available later.
Under Perens' definition, open source describes a broad general type of software license that makes source code available to the general public with relaxed or non-existent restrictions on the use and modification of the code. It is an explicit "feature" of open source that it puts very few restrictions on the use or distribution by any organization or user, in order to enable the rapid evolution of the software.
Despite initially accepting it, Richard Stallman of the FSF now flatly opposes the term "Open Source" being applied to what they refer to as "free software". Although he agrees that the two terms describe "almost the same category of software", Stallman considers equating the terms incorrect and misleading. Critics also oppose the professed pragmatism of the Open Source Initiative, as they fear that the free software ideals of freedom and community are threatened by compromising on the FSF's idealistic standards for software freedom. The FSF considers free software to be a subset of open source software, and Richard Stallman explained that DRM software, for example, can be developed as open source, despite that it does not give its users freedom (it restricts them), and thus doesn't qualify as free software.
Open-source software licensing
Free and open-source software#Licensing
When an author contributes code to an open-source project (e.g., Apache.org) they do so under an explicit license (e.g., the Apache Contributor License Agreement) or an implicit license (e.g. the open-source license under which the project is already licensing code). Some open-source projects do not take contributed code under a license, but actually require joint assignment of the author's copyright in order to accept code contributions into the project.
Examples of free software license / open-source licenses include Apache License, BSD license, GNU General Public License, GNU Lesser General Public License, MIT License, Eclipse Public License and Mozilla Public License.
The proliferation of open-source licenses is a negative aspect of the open-source movement because it is often difficult to understand the legal implications of the differences between licenses. With more than 180,000 open-source projects available and more than 1400 unique licenses, the complexity of deciding how to manage open-source usage within "closed-source" commercial enterprises has dramatically increased. Some are home-grown, while others are modeled after mainstream FOSS licenses such as Berkeley Software Distribution ("BSD"), Apache, MIT-style (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), or GNU General Public License ("GPL"). In view of this, open-source practitioners are starting to use classification schemes in which FOSS licenses are grouped (typically based on the existence and obligations imposed by the copyleft provision; the strength of the copyleft provision).
An important legal milestone for the open source / free software movement was passed in 2008, when the US federal appeals court ruled that free software licenses definitely do set legally binding conditions on the use of copyrighted work, and they are therefore enforceable under existing copyright law. As a result, if end-users violate the licensing conditions, their license disappears, meaning they are infringing copyright.
Despite this licensing risk, most commercial software vendors are using open source software in commercial products while fulfilling the license terms, e.g. leveraging the Apache license.
Certifications
Certification can help to build user confidence. Certification could be applied to the simplest component, to a whole software system. The United Nations University International Institute for Software Technology, initiated a project known as "The Global Desktop Project". This project aims to build a desktop interface that every end-user is able to understand and interact with, thus crossing the language and cultural barriers. The project would improve developing nations' access to information systems. UNU/IIST hopes to achieve this without any compromise in the quality of the software by introducing certifications.
Open-source software development Development model
In his 1997 essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar, open-source evangelist Eric S. Raymond suggests a model for developing OSS known as the bazaar model. Raymond likens the development of software by traditional methodologies to building a cathedral, "carefully crafted by individual wizards or small bands of mages working in splendid isolation". He suggests that all software should be developed using the bazaar style, which he described as "a great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches."
In the traditional model of development, which he called the cathedral model, development takes place in a centralized way. Roles are clearly defined. Roles include people dedicated to designing (the architects), people responsible for managing the project, and people responsible for implementation. Traditional software engineering follows the cathedral model.
The bazaar model, however, is different. In this model, roles are not clearly defined. Gregorio Robles suggests that software developed using the bazaar model should exhibit the following patterns:
Users should be treated as co-developers The users are treated like co-developers and so they should have access to the source code of the software. Furthermore, users are encouraged to submit additions to the software, code fixes for the software, bug reports, documentation etc. Having more co-developers increases the rate at which the software evolves. Linus's law states, "Given enough eyeballs all bugs are shallow." This means that if many users view the source code, they will eventually find all bugs and suggest how to fix them. Note that some users have advanced programming skills, and furthermore, each user's machine provides an additional testing environment. This new testing environment offers that ability to find and fix a new bug.
Early releases The first version of the software should be released as early as possible so as to increase one's chances of finding co-developers early.
Frequent integration Code changes should be integrated (merged into a shared code base) as often as possible so as to avoid the overhead of fixing a large number of bugs at the end of the project life cycle. Some open source projects have nightly builds where integration is done automatically on a daily basis.
Several versions There should be at least two versions of the software. There should be a buggier version with more features and a more stable version with fewer features. The buggy version (also called the development version) is for users who want the immediate use of the latest features, and are willing to accept the risk of using code that is not yet thoroughly tested. The users can then act as co-developers, reporting bugs and providing bug fixes.
High modularization The general structure of the software should be modular allowing for parallel development on independent components.
Dynamic decision making structure There is a need for a decision making structure, whether formal or informal, that makes strategic decisions depending on changing user requirements and other factors. Cf. Extreme programming.
Data suggests, however, that OSS is not quite as democratic as the bazaar model suggests. An analysis of five billion bytes of free/open source code by 31,999 developers shows that 74% of the code was written by the most active 10% of authors. The average number of authors involved in a project was 5.1, with the median at 2.
Advantages and disadvantages
Open source software is usually easier to obtain than proprietary software, often resulting in increased usage. Additionally, the availability of an open source implementation of a standard can increase adoption of that standard. It has also helped to build developer loyalty as developers feel empowered and have a sense of ownership of the end product.
Moreover, lower costs of marketing and logistical services are needed for OSS. OSS also helps companies keep abreast of technology developments. It is a good tool to promote a company's image, including its commercial products. The OSS development approach has helped produce reliable, high quality software quickly and inexpensively.
Open source development offers the potential for a more flexible technology and quicker innovation. It is said to be more reliable since it typically has thousands of independent programmers testing and fixing bugs of the software. It is flexible because modular systems allow programmers to build custom interfaces, or add new abilities to it and it is innovative since open source programs are the product of collaboration among a large number of different programmers. The mix of divergent perspectives, corporate objectives, and personal goals speeds up innovation.
Moreover, free software can be developed in accord with purely technical requirements. It does not require thinking about commercial pressure that often degrades the quality of the software. Commercial pressures make traditional software developers pay more attention to customers' requirements than to security requirements, since such features are somewhat invisible to the customer.
It is sometimes said that the open source development process may not be well defined and the stages in the development process, such as system testing and documentation may be ignored. However this is only true for small (mostly single programmer) projects. Larger, successful projects do define and enforce at least some rules as they need them to make the teamwork possible. In the most complex projects these rules may be as strict as reviewing even minor change by two independent developers.
Not all OSS initiatives have been successful, for example SourceXchange and Eazel. Software experts and researchers who are not convinced by open source's ability to produce quality systems identify the unclear process, the late defect discovery and the lack of any empirical evidence as the most important problems (collected data concerning productivity and quality). It is also difficult to design a commercially sound business model around the open source paradigm. Consequently, only technical requirements may be satisfied and not the ones of the market. In terms of security, open source may allow hackers to know about the weaknesses or loopholes of the software more easily than closed-source software.It depends on control mechanisms in order to create effective performance of autonomous agents who participate in virtual organizations.
Development tools
In OSS development, tools are used to support the development of the product and the development process itself.
Revision control systems such as Concurrent Versions System (CVS) and later Subversion (SVN) and Git are examples of tools, often themselves open source, help manage the source code files and the changes to those files for a software project. The projects are frequently hosted and published on sites like Launchpad, Bitbucket, and GitHub.
Open source projects are often loosely organized with "little formalised process modelling or support", but utilities such as issue trackers are often used to organize open source software development. Commonly used bugtrackers include Bugzilla and Redmine.
Tools such as mailing lists and IRC provide means of coordination among developers. Centralized code hosting sites also have social features that allow developers to communicate.
Organizations
Some of the "more prominent organizations" involved in OSS development include the Apache Software Foundation, creators of the Apache web server; the Linux Foundation, a nonprofit which employed Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux operating system kernel; the Eclipse Foundation, home of the Eclipse software development platform; the Debian Project, creators of the influential Debian GNU/Linux distribution; the Mozilla Foundation, home of the Firefox web browser; and OW2, European-born community developing open source middleware. New organizations tend to have a more sophisticated governance model and their membership is often formed by legal entity members.
Open Source Software Institute is a membership-based, non-profit (501 (c)(6)) organization established in 2001 that promotes the development and implementation of open source software solutions within US Federal, state and local government agencies. OSSI's efforts have focused on promoting adoption of open source software programs and policies within Federal Government and Defense and Homeland Security communities.
Open Source for America is a group created to raise awareness in the United States Federal Government about the benefits of open source software. Their stated goals are to encourage the government's use of open source software, participation in open source software projects, and incorporation of open source community dynamics to increase government transparency.
Mil-OSS is a group dedicated to the advancement of OSS use and creation in the military.
Funding
Business models for open-source software
Comparisons with other software licensing/development models
Closed source / proprietary software
Comparison of open source and closed source
The debate over open source vs. closed source (alternatively called proprietary software) is sometimes heated.
The top four reasons (as provided by Open Source Business Conference survey) individuals or organizations choose open source software are:
lower cost, security,
no vendor 'lock in', and
better quality.
Since innovative companies no longer rely heavily on software sales, proprietary software has become less of a necessity. As such, things like open source content management system—or CMS—deployments are becoming more commonplace. In 2009, the US White House switched its CMS system from a proprietary system to Drupal open source CMS. Further, companies like Novell (who traditionally sold software the old-fashioned way) continually debate the benefits of switching to open source availability, having already switched part of the product offering to open source code. In this way, open source software provides solutions to unique or specific problems. As such, it is reported that 98% of enterprise-level companies use open source software offerings in some capacity.
With this market shift, more critical systems are beginning to rely on open source offerings, allowing greater funding (such as US Department of Homeland Security grants) to help "hunt for security bugs." According to a pilot study of organisations adopting (or not adopting) OSS; several factors of statistical significance were observed in the manager's beliefs in relation to (a) attitudes toward outcomes, (b) the influences and behaviours of others and (c) their ability to act.
Proprietary source distributors have started to develop and contribute to the open source community due to the market share shift, doing so by the need to reinvent their models in order to remain competitive.
Many advocates argue that open source software is inherently safer because any person can view, edit, and change code. A study of the Linux source code has 0.17 bugs per 1000 lines of code while proprietary software generally scores 20–30 bugs per 1000 lines.
Free software
Alternative terms for free software
Comparison of free and open-source software licenses
According to the Free software movement's leader, Richard Stallman, the main difference is that by choosing one term over the other (i.e. either "open source" or "free software") one lets others know about what one's goals are: "Open source is a development methodology; free software is a social movement." Nevertheless, there is significant overlap between open source software and free software.
The FSF said that the term "open source" fosters an ambiguity of a different kind such that it confuses the mere availability of the source with the freedom to use, modify, and redistribute it. On the other hand, the "free software" term was criticized for the ambiguity of the word "free" as "available at no cost", which was seen as discouraging for business adoption, and for the historical ambiguous usage of the term.
Developers have used the alternative terms Free and Open Source Software (FOSS), or Free/Libre and Open Source Software (FLOSS), consequently, to describe open source software that is also free software. While the definition of open source software is very similar to the FSF's free software definition it was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by Bruce Perens with input from Eric S. Raymond and others.
The term "open source" was originally intended to be trademarkable; however, the term was deemed too descriptive, so no trademark exists. The OSI would prefer that people treat open source as if it were a trademark, and use it only to describe software licensed under an OSI approved license.OSI Certified''' is a trademark licensed only to people who are distributing software licensed under a license listed on the Open Source Initiative's list.
Open-source vs. source-available
Although the OSI definition of "open source software" is widely accepted, a small number of people and organizations use the term to refer to software where the source is available for viewing, but which may not legally be modified or redistributed. Such software is more often referred to as source-available, or as shared source, a term coined by Microsoft in 2001. While in 2007 two shared source licenses were certified by the OSI, most of the shared source licenses are still source-available only.
In 2007 Michael Tiemann, president of OSI, had criticized companies such as SugarCRM for promoting their software as "open source" when in fact it did not have an OSI-approved license. In SugarCRM's case, it was because the software is so-called "badgeware" since it specified a "badge" that must be displayed in the user interface (SugarCRM has since switched to GPLv3). Another example was Scilab prior to version 5, which called itself "the open source platform for numerical computation" but had a license that forbade commercial redistribution of modified versions.
Current applications and adoption
Free and open-source software#Adoption
"We migrated key functions from Windows to Linux because we needed an operating system that was stable and reliable – one that would give us in-house control. So if we needed to patch, adjust, or adapt, we could." Official statement of the United Space Alliance, which manages the computer systems for the International Space Station (ISS), regarding why they chose to switch from Windows to Debian GNU/Linux on the ISS
Widely used open-source software
List of free and open-source software packages
Open source software projects are built and maintained by a network of volunteer programmers and are widely used in free as well as commercial products. Prime examples of open-source products are the Apache HTTP Server, the e-commerce platform osCommerce, internet browsers Mozilla Firefox and Chromium (the project where the vast majority of development of the freeware Google Chrome is done) and the full office suite LibreOffice. One of the most successful open-source products is the GNU/Linux operating system, an open-source Unix-like operating system, and its derivative Android, an operating system for mobile devices. In some industries, open source software is the norm.
Extension of the term for non-software usage
While the term "open source" applied originally only to the source code of software, it is now being applied to many other areas such as Open source ecology, a movement to decentralize technologies so that any human can use them. However, it is often misapplied to other areas which have different and competing principles, which overlap only partially.
The same principles that underlie open source software can be found in many other ventures, such as open-source hardware, Wikipedia, and open-access publishing. Collectively, these principles are known as open source, open content, and open collaboration: "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants, who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and non-contributors alike."
This "culture" or ideology takes the view that the principles apply more generally to facilitate concurrent input of different agendas, approaches and priorities, in contrast with more centralized models of development such as those typically used in commercial companies.
See also Free software Free software community
List of open source software packages
Open source advocacy Open Source Initiative
Open Source Software Institute
Open source software security
Open source video games
Business models for open source software
Shared source
Timeline of open source software
Open source hardware User-generated content Open-content References Further reading
Open source software: A survey from 10,000 feet Foundations and Trends in Technology, Information and Operations Management http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/jrnl/2010-TOMS-OSS-Survey/html/ASKG10.pdf
Coleman, E. Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking (Princeton UP, 2012)
Open Source: Technology and Policy
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution Chris DiBona and Sam Ockman and Mark Stone
Free Software, Free Society: Selected Essays of Richard M. Stallman GNU Press, Free Software Foundation https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/fsfs/rms-essays.pdf
Understanding FOSS Benkler, Yochai (2002), "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm." Yale Law Journal 112.3 (Dec 2002): p367(78) (in Adobe pdf format)
https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-045.html "The Economic Properties of Software", Jena Economic Research Papers, Volume 2 (2008), Number 2008-045
Lerner, J. & Tirole, J. (2002): 'Some simple economics on open source', Journal Of Industrial Economics 50(2), p 197–234
The Rise of Open Source Licensing: A Challenge to the Use of Intellectual Property in the Software Industry http://pub.turre.com/openbook_valimaki.pdf
http://nzoss.org.nz/system/files/moj_oss_strategy_1.0.pdf Open Source Discussion Paper – version 1.0
Rossi, M. A. (2006): Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions, in J. Bitzer P. Schröder, eds, 'The Economics of Open Source Software Development', p 15–55.
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution — an online book containing essays from prominent members of the open source communityWhence The Source: Untangling the Open Source/Free Software Debate'', essay on the differences between free software and open source, by Thomas Scoville
Berry, D M (2004). The Contestation of Code: A Preliminary Investigation into the Discourse of the Free Software and Open Software Movement, Critical Discourse Studies, Volume 1(1).
External links
The Open Source Initiative's definition of open source
Free / Open Source Research Community — Many online research papers about Open Source
de:Open Source |
Source: Download to read ad-free.
ad Open navigation menu Close suggestions Search Search en Change Language Upload Loading... Loading... User Settings close menu Welcome to Scribd! Upload Read for free FAQ and support Language (EN) Sign in Skip carousel Carousel Previous Carousel Next What is Scribd? Academic Professional Culture Hobbies & Crafts Personal Growth All Documents Academic Documents Foreign Language Studies Chinese ESL Science & Mathematics
Astronomy & Space Sciences
Biology
Study Aids & Test Prep
Book Notes College Entrance Exams
Teaching Methods & Materials
Early Childhood Education
Education Philosophy & Theory
All categories Professional Documents Business Business Analytics
Human Resources & Personnel Management
Career & Growth Careers Job Hunting Computers Applications & Software CAD-CAM
Finance & Money Management
Accounting & Bookkeeping Auditing Law Business & Financial Contracts & Agreements Politics American Government International Relations Technology & Engineering Automotive Aviation & Aeronautics All categories Culture Documents Art Antiques & Collectibles Architecture Biography & Memoir Artists and Musicians
Entertainers and the Rich & Famous
Comics & Graphic Novels
History Ancient Modern Philosophy
Language Arts & Discipline
Composition & Creative Writing
Linguistics Literary Criticism Social Science Anthropology Archaeology True Crime All categories
Hobbies & Crafts Documents
Cooking, Food & Wine
Beverages Courses & Dishes Games & Activities Card Games Fantasy Sports Home & Garden Crafts & Hobbies Gardening Sports & Recreation Baseball Basketball All categories Personal Growth Documents Lifestyle Beauty & Grooming Fashion Religion & Spirituality Buddhism Christianity Self-Improvement Addiction Mental Health Wellness
Body, Mind, & Spirit
Diet & Nutrition All categories
Computer and Operating Systems
Uploaded by Drabrajib Hazarika 100% (3)
100% found this document useful (3 votes)
10K views 213 pages AI-enhanced title Document Information
click to expand document information
This book is on computers,software,hardware,operating systems by Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
Original Title
Computer And Operating Systems
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Share this document
Share or Embed Document
Sharing Options
Share on Facebook, opens a new window
Facebook
Share on Twitter, opens a new window
Twitter
Share on LinkedIn, opens a new window
LinkedIn
Share with Email, opens mail client
Email Copy link Copy link
Did you find this document useful?
100%
100% found this document useful, Mark this document as useful
0%
0% found this document not useful, Mark this document as not useful
Is this content inappropriate?
Report this Document Download now Save
Save Computer And Operating Systems For Later
100% (3)
100% found this document useful (3 votes)
10K views 213 pages
Computer and Operating Systems
Uploaded by Drabrajib Hazarika AI-enhanced title
This book is on computers,software,hardware,operating systems by Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
Full description Save
Save Computer And Operating Systems For Later
100%
100% found this document useful, Mark this document as useful
0%
0% found this document not useful, Mark this document as not useful
Embed Share Print Download now Jump to Page
You are on page 1
of 213 Search inside document Reward Your Curiosity
Everything you want to read.
Anytime. Anywhere. Any device.
No Commitment. Cancel anytime.
Share this document
Share or Embed Document
Sharing Options
Share on Facebook, opens a new window
Share on Twitter, opens a new window
Share on LinkedIn, opens a new window
Share with Email, opens mail client
Copy link Documents Computers Programming Footer menu Back to top About About Scribd
Everand: Ebooks & Audiobooks
SlideShare Press Join our team! Contact us Invite friends Scribd for enterprise Support Help / FAQ Accessibility Purchase help AdChoices Legal Terms Privacy Copyright
Do not sell or share my personal information
Social Instagram Instagram Twitter Twitter Facebook Facebook Pinterest Pinterest
Get our free apps
About About Scribd
Everand: Ebooks & Audiobooks
SlideShare Press Join our team! Contact us Invite friends Scribd for enterprise Legal Terms Privacy Copyright
Do not sell or share my personal information
Support Help / FAQ Accessibility Purchase help AdChoices Social Instagram Instagram Twitter Twitter Facebook Facebook Pinterest Pinterest
Get our free apps
Documents Language : English close menu English (selected) Español Português Deutsch Français Русский Italiano Română Bahasa Indonesia Learn more
Copyright © 2024 Scribd Inc.
Language : English close menu English (selected) Español Português Deutsch Français Русский Italiano Română Bahasa Indonesia Learn more
Copyright © 2024 Scribd Inc.
576648e32a3d8b82ca71961b7a986505 |